LF 


THE  BUILDING  AND  CARE  OF 
THE  BODY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON  •    CHICAGO 
ATLANTA   •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


EDUCATION 


THE  BUILDING  AND  CARE 
OF  THE  BODY 


AN  ELEMENTARY  TEXT-BOOK  IN 

PRACTICAL  PHYSIOLOGY 

AND  HYGIENE 


BY 


COLUMBUS   N.    MILLARD 

SUPERVISOR  OF  GRAMMAR  GRADES  BUFFALO  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
AUTHOR  OF  "THE  WONDERFUL  HOUSE  THAT  JACK  HAS" 


gorfc 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1910 

All  rights  reserved 


/V\  L 


COPYRIGHT,  1910, 
BY   THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  April,  1910. 

EDUCATION 


XortoooO  tyres* 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

• 

TEACHING  pupils  to  develop  strong,  healthy  bodies 
should  be  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  our  schools.  That 
unwise  habits  of  eating  and  breathing  are  often  the 
cause  of  weakening  the  body  and  sowing  the  seed  of 
future  ill  health  is  a  .well-known  fact.  That  daily 
habits  as  to  cleanliness,  exercise,  rest,  and  protection 
of  the  body  are  also  very  important  factors  in  gaining 
and  preserving  health  and  strength  is  an  equally 
familiar  truth. 

Habits  in  all  these  respects  are  formed  early  in  life, 
and  the  longer 'incorrect  ones  are  practiced,  the  more 
difficult  it  is  to  change  them.  Unfortunately,  too, 
knowledge  gained  after  the  formation  of  incorrect 
bodily  habits  often  effects  few  changes,  unless  chronic 
invalidism  compels  thereto.  It  naturally  follows, 
then,  that  Physiology  and  Hygiene,  the  study  in  the 
school  curriculum  which  especially  has  to  do  with 
the  development  and  care  of  the  body,  should  deal 
with  topics  that  are  vital  to  the  formation  of  good 
health  habits,  and  should  present  them  in  a  way  that 
will  both  interest  and  impress  children.  The  state- 
ment that  it  is  right  or  best  to  do  or  not  to  do  certain 

54ISG5 


VI  PREFACE 

things  often  makes  little  or  no  lasting  impression  upon 
young  folk.  If  they  can  be  led  to  see,  however,  that 
certain  practices  are  likely  to  make  them  better  look- 
ing, abler  in  play  and  in  work,  and  generally  happier, 
more  comfortable,  and  more  useful,  the  information 
may  be  both  retained  and  applied,  for  these  benefits 
appeal  to  the  child  mind  as  well  worth  while. 

As  the  title  of  this  book,  "The  Building  and  Care 
of  the  Body,"  suggests,  it  has  been  written  to  fulfill 
the  above  stated  conditions.  Its  aim  throughout  is 
to  influence  children  to  form  habits  likely  to  result 
in  the  development  of  strong,  healthy  bodies.  The 
fact  that  bodily  weakness  is  attended  by  discomfort 
and  handicap,  and  that  vigorous  health  results  in 
improved  appearance,  more  enjoyment,  higher  effi- 
ciency, and  greater  usefulness,  is  strongly  emphasized. 
That  each  individual  child  is  largely  responsible  for 
the  health  and  efficiency  which  he  will  enjoy  in  man- 
hood is  also  made  prominent.  In  each  chapter  em- 
phasis is  placed  upon  the  points  vital  to  health.  For 
example,  under  foods  and  digestion,  the  value  of  the 
various  foods  to  the  body,  and  the  importance  of 
the  wise  selection  of  foods,  thorough  mastication,  and 
the  daily  evacuation  of  the  waste  products  of  diges- 
tion, are  among  the  topics  made  especially  prominent. 
Under  respiration,  the  value  of  pure  air,  breathing 
through  the  nose,  and  rhythmic,  deep  breathing  are 


PREFACE  Vll 

among  the  points  especially  emphasized,  as  are  also 
the  evil  effects  of  adenoids  and  improper  posture. 
The  benefits  of  bathing,  the  importance  of  keeping  the 
kidneys  well  flushed,  the  necessity  for  protecting  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord,  the  bad  effects  of  obstructing 
the  circulation,  and  the  wisdom  of  guarding  against 
contagious  diseases,  especially  tuberculosis,  is  each 
made  prominent  in  its  respective  chapter.  An  earnest 
endeavor  has  also  been  made  to  impress  children  with 
the  great  value  of  the  eyes,  ears,  and  teeth  to  the 
body,  and  to  state  the  directions  for  protecting  and 
preserving  each  so  simply  and  clearly  that  they  will 
appeal  even  to  the  youngest  as  both  easy  to  follow 
and  directly  beneficial.  The  chapter  on  the  care  of 
little  children  should  prove  a  valuable  feature,  since 
so  many  school  children  assist  in  the  care  of  little 
ones  at  home. 

Facts  concerning  anatomy  and  processes  are  given, 
if  they  can  be  readily  understood,  and  will  help  chil- 
dren to  see  the  need  of  forming  habits  conducive  to 
health;  otherwise  they  are  omitted.  After  each 
chapter  Points  for  Special  Study  are  given,  and  these 
are  printed  so  that  they  can  be  studied  with  the 
least  possible  strain  to  the  eyes.  Questions  for  use 
in  study  and  recitation  also  follow  each  chapter. 

Like  the  basic  information  in  other  studies,  the 
essential  facts  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene  need  con- 


viii  PREFACE 

stant  repetition,  if  they  are  to  be  well  understood 
and  practically  applied.  For  this  reason  "The  Build- 
ing and  Care  of  the  Body  "  may  be  used  to  advantage 
in  three  successive  grades.  For  example,  in  the  fourth 
grade  it  may  be  read,  and  the  important  points  talked 
over  in  class;  the  text  may  be  profitably  read  and 
discussed  again  in  the  fifth  grade,  and  the  Points  for 
Special  Study  memorized;  and  the  whole  may  be 
carefully  studied  in  the  sixth  grade,  pupils  being 
required  to  answer  the  questions  following  each  chap- 
ter. Under  the  guidance  of  either  teachers  or  parents, 
such  use  of  the  pages  that  follow  should  inspire  chil- 
dren with  the  idea  that  health  and  strength  are  the 
best  wealth,  and  that  not  medicine,  but  common  sense 
in  daily  living,  will  insure  them  the  possession  of  this 
splendid  capital  for  the  future. 


CONTENTS 


I.  THE  BEST  OF  ALL  GOOD  THINGS        .        .        .  1 

II.     THE  BODY      . 4 

III.  THE  FOOD  COMPONENTS 9 

IV.  DIGESTION  —  THE    FOOD    PASSAGE    AND    ITS    FLUID 

STATIONS 14 

V.    MASTICATION 19 

VI.  DIGESTION  IN  THE  STOMACH  AND  INTESTINES   .        .  24 

VII.  SOME  FACTS  TO  REMEMBER  ABOUT  EATING       .        .  27 

VIII.     MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 34 

IX.  EGGS,  MEAT,  AND  FISH        .        .        .        .        .        .42 

X.     GRAINS  AND  GRAIN  FOODS 48 

XL     OTHER  VEGETABLE  FOODS 52 

XII.     DRINKS .58 

XIII.  THE  CHIEF  MISTAKES  IN  THE  CHOICE  OF  FOODS      .  66 

XIV.  THE  NEED  FOR  PURE  AIR 71 

XV.    VENTILATION 77 

XVI.    BREATHING .        .87 

XVII.  MOUTH  BREATHING  AND  ADENOIDS    ....  100 

XVIII.     THE  ORGANS  OF  EXCRETION 105 

XIX.  THE  BLOOD  AND  THE  CIRCULATION    ....  116 

XX.     THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES 125 

XXI.     THE  TEETH 138 

XXII.     THE  EYES 148 

XXIII.  THE  EARS 161 

XXIV.  THE  VOIC*E     .        . 172 

XXV.     CLOTHING,  NAILS,  AND  HAIR 178 

ix 


X  „  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXVI.     COMMON  ACCIDENTS 185 

XXVII.     CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES 192 

XXVIII.    EXERCISE  AND  BODILY  VIGOR          ....    206 
XXIX.     THE  CARE  OF  LITTLE  CHILDREN     .        .        .        .210 

GLOSSARY 229 

INDEX    ........  ,233 


THE  BUILDING  AND  CARE  OF 
THE  BODY 


THE    BUILDING   AND    CARE    OF   THE 

BODY 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  BEST  OF  ALL  GOOD  THINGS 

Why  should  so  many  years  be  spent  in  school? 
Most  children  would  answer,  "  To  learn."  If  asked 
the  reason  for  learning,  the  reply  would  very  likely 
be,  "  So  that  we  can  earn  money  when  we  grow  older." 
Further  question  as  to  the  benefits  expected  from  the 
money  would  bring  many  different  answers. 

A  beautiful  home  on  the  avenue  might  be  the  fond 
wish  of  some.  Others  might  be  hoping  for  positions  of 
wealth  and  power;  and  still  others,  for  travel  in  for- 
eign countries,  or  some  similar  benefit  in  the  future. 

Many  of  these  good  things  would,  indeed,  add  much 
to  one's  power  to  be  happy  and  useful,  and  so  they  are 
well  worth  striving  for.  But  to  enjoy  any  of  them 
fully,  there  is  something  else  that  all  need  to  have. 
That  something  is  a  strong,  healthy  body.  With  it 
one  can  be  happy  and  useful,  even  though  he  is  poor. 
Without  good  health  one  cannot  be  entirely  happy, 


g  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

no  matter  how  rich  he  may  be.  For  this  reason  a 
strong,  healthy  body  may  well  be  called  one  of  the 
very  best  of  all  good  things. 

But  how  may  this  best  of  all  good  things  be  gained  ? 
Do  not  our  bodies  "  just  grow,"  like  Topsy  in  "  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin  "  ?  Do  we  not  become  healthy  or  sickly 
simply  as  a  matter  of  luck  ?  Surely  children  can  do 
nothing  to  keep  themselves  strong.  Mother,  or  nurse, 
or  the  doctor  are  the  only  ones  who  can  do  that. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  children  do  not  become 
healthy  or  sickly  just  as  a  matter  of  luck.  Mother,  or 
nurse,  or  the  doctor  are  not  the  only  ones  who  can 
help  keep  boys  and  girls  strong  and  well.  In  fact,  the 
one  who  can  do  the  most  toward  making  any  child  a 
strong,  healthy  man  or  woman  is  that  child  him- 
self. 

"  I  should  just  like  to  know  how !  "  some  little  folks 
may  exclaim.  "  There  are  those  big  college  girls  or 
fellows  who  play  ball,  or  golf,  or  tennis  in  such  fine 
style!  Or  there  is  my  Aunt  Mary  who  can  do  every- 
thing so  well,  and  is  young  and  handsome  at  fifty! 
Or  there  is  dear  old  grandfather,  hale  and  hearty  at 
seventy-five,  who  seems  to  enjoy  life  just  as  much  as 
young  people !  I  would  surely  work  my  hardest  to  be- 
come like  them!  " 

It  is  possible  to  become  like  the  grown-up  young 
people  who  play  games  so  well;  or  even  like  handsome, 


THE  BEST  OF  ALL   GOOD   THINGS  3 

useful  Aunt  Mary,  or  hale  and  hearty  grandfather. 
Indeed,  most  children  can  gain  such  good  fortune, 
if  they  only  begin  to  try  for  it  soon  enough.  Two 
things,  however,  must  be  learned  if  they  succeed. 
The  first  is  how  to  help  wisely  in  the  building  of  their 
bodies;  the  second,  how  to  protect  and  to  keep  their 
bodies  from  harm. 

The  chapters  which  follow  tell  you  how  to  do  both 
of  these  important  things.  Read  them  as  eagerly  and 
earnestly  as  if  they  showed  how  to  gain  the  largest  of 
fortunes.  Try  also  to  put  into  daily  practice  what 
they  teach.  By  so  doing  you  will  gain  for  yourself  the 
best  of  all  good  things,  a  strong,  healthy  body. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   BODY 

Before  we  can  learn  to  become  good  builders  and 
caretakers  of  our  bodies,  we  shall  need  to  know  the 
names  of  their  chief  parts.  Of  course  we  know  such 
commonly  named  parts  as  the  head,  neck,  arms,  and 
legs.  The  part  of  the  body  between  the  neck  and  legs 
is  called  the  trunk.  The  trunk  is  divided  into  two  parts. 
The  upper  of  these  is  named  the  chest  or  thorax,  and  it 
contains  the  heart  and  lungs. 

The  lower  part  of  the  trunk  is  named  the  abdomen 
(ab-do'men).  In  the  upper  left-hand  side  of  the  ab- 
domen is  the  stomach,  and  in  the  upper  right-hand  side, 
the  liver.  The  intestines  (in-tes'tmz)  occupy  the  rest 
of  the  front  side  of  the  abdomen.  Back  of  these  are 
the  kidneys,  bladder,  and  other  important  organs. 

The  heart,  lungs,  stomach,  liver,  etc.,  are  called 
organs,  because  they  do  important  work  in  the  body. 
Later  on  we  shall  learn  the  part  each  has,  and*  how 
necessary  all  are  to  our  health  and  well-being. 

Did  you  ever  see  a  butcher  cut  up  an  animal  for  the 
market?  If  so,  you  may  have  noticed  that  under- 
neath the  inside  covering  or  skin  there  were  both  muscle 

4 


THE  BODY 


and  fat.     Under  these  you  also  saw  the  hard  bone 
which  he  had  to  use  an  ax  or  saw  to  cut  through. 

The  Skeleton. —  In  the 
human  body  there  are  about 
two  hundred  bones.  All 
these  bones  in  place  to- 
gether make  up  the  skele- 
ton. The  skeleton  is  often 
spoken  of  as  the  framework 
of  the  body.  On  page  6 
we  see  the  skeleton  of  a  man 
with  the  common  names  of 
its  larger  parts  shown.  These 
names  should  be  learned, 
for  they  are  often  used. 

Growth.  — All  of  us  were 
once  little  babies.  If  we 
live  to  be  twenty-one  years 
old  or  more,  we  shall  very 
likely  be  as  tall  as  some  of 
the  men  and  women  whom 
we  know.  In  other  words, 
we  shall  have  our  growth. 


INTESTINE 


Copyright,  1908,  in  Ritchie's  Human 
Physiology,  World  Book  Company,  pub- 
lishers, Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York. 


Section  of  the  body  showing  the 
Year   by  year   OUr  bones,    positions  of  the  organs  in  the  cavi- 

muscles,    and    organs   will 

grow  larger.    Daily  the  tissues  (tish'uz)  (the  thin  layers 

that  make  up  these  bones,  muscles,  and  organs)  will 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


NASAL  BONES 


SHOULDER  JOINT, 


9CAPULA 
OR  SHOULDER  BLADE 


ELBOW  JOINT. 


THE  CRANIUM  OR  SKULL 

MALAR  (CHEEK) BONE 
SUPERIOR  MAXILLARY 
OR  UPPER  JAW  BONE 

INFERIOR  MAXILLARY  OR  LOWER  JAW  BONE 
SPINAL  COLUMN 

(CLAVICLE)  COLLAR  BONE 


METATARSALS  OR 

BONES  BETWEEN  THE 

ANKLE  AND  TOES 


The  Skeleton. 


THE  BODY  1 

wear  out  and  have  to  be  repaired.  Always  the  body 
must  keep  all  of  its  parts  warm.  Food,  air,  and  water 
are  the  materials  the  body  makes  use  of  for  growth  and 
repairs  and  for  warmth. 

The  Blood.  —  Sometimes  we  have  seen  blood  flow 
from  a  cut.  Maybe  we  thought  little  of  the  blood  or 
the  cut,  for  it  did  not  hurt  much.  But  our  parents 
or  teachers  quickly  bound  the  wound  to  stop  the  flow 
of  blood.  They  knew  that  blood  is  the  great  building 
agent  which  carries  what  is  needed  of  food  and  air  to 
all  parts  of  the  body.  For  this  reason  they  feared  we 
might  be  weakened  by  the  loss  of  blood. 

There  are  many  good  stories  that  we  like  to  hear. 
I  hope  that  there  are  also  many  of  us  that  enjoy  read- 
ing good  books.  But  of  all  the  good  tales  we  have 
heard  or  read,  few  are  more  curious,  and  none  can  be 
of  greater  value  to  us,  than  the  ones  that  are  to 
follow. 

These  stories  will  tell  how  the  body  makes  use  of 
food,  air,  and  water  in  building,  warming,  and  repair- 
ing itself.  At  the  very  outset  there  is  one  fine  thing 
that  we  shall  be  glad  to  hear.  The  better  we  know 
these  stories,  the  handsomer,  and  happier,  and  more 
useful  we  can  be.  The  better  we  can  tell  them  to 
others,  the  more  good  we  shall  be  able  to  do  our  friends. 

NOTE.  —  After  many  of  the  chapters  points  for  special 
study  will  be  given.  Pupils  should  be  able  to  tell  all  of 


8  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

these  to  their  teachers  and  parents.     They  should  also  be 
able  to  answer  the  questions  that  are  given. 

POINTS  FOR  SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  The  part  of  the  body  between  the  neck  and  the  legs 
is  called  the  trunk. 

2.  The  upper  part  of  the  trunk  is  named   the  chest  or 
thorax.     It  contains  the  lungs  and  heart. 

3.  The  lower  part  of  the  trunk  is  called  the  abdomen. 
It  contains  the  stomach,  intestines,  kidneys,  liver,  and  other 
important  organs. 

4.  The  body  makes  use  of  food,  air,  and  water  for  growth 
and  repairs  and  for  warmth. 

5.  Blood  is  the  great  building  agent  that  carries  what  is 
needed  of  the  food  and  the  air  to  every  part  of  the  body. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  Give  the  name  of  the  part  of  the  body  between  the  neck 
and  the  legs. 

2.  What  is  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  called,  and  what 
organs  does  it  contain? 

3.  Name  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk,  and  tell  what  organs 
it  contains. 

4.  About  how  many  bones  are  there  in  the  body? 

5.  What  is  the  skeleton? 

6.  Name  three  materials  that  the  body  makes  use  of  for 
growth,  repairs,  and  for  warmth. 

7.  In  what  are  building  and  fuel  materials  carried  to  all 
parts  of  the  body? 


CHAPTER  III 
THE   STORY   OF   FOOD   IN   BODY   BUILDING 

THE    FOOD    COMPONENTS 

In  the  last  chapter  we  learned  that  blood  carries 
what  is  needed  of  the  food  to  every  part  of  the  body. 
We  know  how  unlike  blood  is  to  bread,  vegetables, 
and  many  other  foods.  How  great  must  be  the  changes 
before  the  food  we  eat  is  in  such  form  that  it  can  be 
taken  into  the  blood  ! 

Food  Components.  —  A  component  (kom-po'nent)  of 
anything  is  one  of  the  materials  of  which  it  is  made. 
One  of  the  first  things  to  learn  about  food  is  that  only 
certain  of  its  components  are  of  use  to  the  body. 
These  are  proteid  (pro'te-id),  fat,  starch,  and  sugar, 
and  some  mineral  salts,  of  which  lime,  iron,  phosphorus 
(fos'for-us),  and  common  salt  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant. 

Proteid  is  the  chief  component  of  blood,  muscle, 
and  all  the  vital  organs  of  the  body.  For  this  reason 
our  food  should  contain  plenty  of  proteid  for  the 
growth  and  repair  of  the  tissues.  Otherwise  our  mus- 
cles and  organs  will  not  be  strong.  The  white  of  egg, 


10  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

lean  meat,  peas,  and  beans  are  examples  of  food  rich 
in  proteid. 

Fat.  —  We  all  know  how  useful  coal  is  in  furnish- 
ing warmth  to  homes  and  power  to  engines.  Why 
is  fat  of  similar  use  to  the  body?  Because  it  fur- 
nishes fuel  for  warmth,  and  energy  to  give  muscles 
the  power  of  motion.  Meat,  cream,  butter,  olive 
oil,  and  lard  are  good  examples  of  foods  that  are  rich 
in  fat. 

When  do  our  bodies  need  the  most  heat?  In  cold 
weather,  of  course ;  and  that  is  the  season  during  which, 
as  a  rule,  we  should  eat  the  most  fat.  People  of 
the  polar  regions  eat  large  quantities  (kwon'ti-tiz)  of 
tallow  or  whale  blubber.  Here  such  foods  would  be 
distasteful.  There  they  need  them  for  warmth,  and 
so  enjoy  their  taste. 

When  do  our  bodies  need  the  most  energy?  With- 
out doubt  at  times  when  the  muscles  are  in  active  use. 
This  explains  why  people  who  work  hard  or  play  hard 
need  to  eat  much  fat.  When  we  are  doing  chiefly 
mental  work,  with  little  physical  exercise,  less  fat 
should  be  eaten  than  when  we  are  actively  using  the 
muscles. 

Starch.  —  Starch  also  furnishes  fuel  to  the  body, 
but  it  does  not  give  nearly  so  much  heat  and  energy  as 
fat.  Potatoes  have  much  starch.  So  also  have  flour, 
rice,  oatmeal,  and  all  cereals.  In  a  temperate  climate 


THE  FOOD   COMPONENTS  11 

the  body  should  be  supplied  with  much  more  starch 
than  fat. 

Sugar.  —  Sugar  is  another  food  component  that  fur- 
nishes heat  and  energy  to  the  body.  Perhaps  we  think 
of  it  chiefly  as  in  sugar,  candy,  and  sirup.  It  is  also 
in  milk,  fruits,  and  certain  vegetables,  such  as  corn  and 
beets.  In  fact,  there  are  many  factories  in  which  sugar 
is  made  from  beets. 

Sugar  is  a  good  food  when  eaten  in  small  quantities, 
but  much  should  not  be  eaten  at  a  time.  The  reason 
is  that  too  much  sugar  is  likely  to  get  the  digestive 
organs  out  of  order.  Without  doubt  many  children 
are  weak  and  sickly  from  eating  too  much  candy  and 
other  foods  rich  in  sugar. 

Salt.  —  We  may  have  read  about  animals  traveling 
miles  to  find  salt  licks.  They  do  this  because  they  can- 
not live  without  salt.  Men,  too,  must  have  salt,  and 
that  is  why  it  is  daily  on  our  dining  tables.  It  is  better 
for  food  to  be  well  seasoned  with  salt  while  being 
cooked.  If  it  is,  too  much  salt  is  not  so  likely  to  be 
eaten. 

Other  Minerals.  —  Lime  is  often  in  drinking  water, 
and  is  present  in  most  of  the  cereals.  It  is  needed  to 
keep  the  bones  and  other  hard  parts  of  the  body  strong 
and  healthy.  Small  quantities  of  magnesia  and  soda 
are  present  in  vegetables  that  grow  under  the  ground. 
Iron  is  in  all  green  vegetables.  Phosphorus  is  in  the 


12  THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

yolk  of  eggs.  All  of  these  minerals  are  needed  by  the 
body;  and  hence  they  must  be  supplied  in  the  food  we 
eat. 

Good  Sense  in  the  Use  of  Food.  —  Of  course  we  want 
to  be  just  as  good-looking  and  likable  persons  as  we 
can.  We  want  also,  I  am  sure,  to  be  just  as  skillful  as 
possible  at  play  and  at  work.  Here  is  a  fact,  then, 
worthy  of  our  careful  attention  (at-ten'shun).  Using 
good  sense  daily  as  to  what  we  eat  will  greatly  aid  us 
both  in  being  and  in  doing  our  best. 

If  good  lumber  is  used  in  its  building,  a  house  is 
usually  strong  and  durable.  So  if  food  rich  in  building 
and  fuel  materials  is  supplied  to  our  bodies,  they,  too, 
are  likely  to  be  strong  and  healthy.  The  saying, 
"  Tell  me  what  you  eat,  and  I  will  tell  you  what  you  are," 
is  really  not  a  claim  without  good  reason.  We  should, 
indeed,  be  thankful  that,  even  while  quite  young,  we 
can  so  easily  learn  the  building  value  of  the  common 
foods. 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  The  food  components  that  are  of  use  to  the  body  are 
proteid,  fat,  starch,  sugar,  and  certain  minerals,  of  which 
salt,  lime,  and  iron  are  among  the  most  important. 

2.  Blood,  muscle,  and  all  the  vital  organs  are  chiefly  made 
up  of  proteid.      On  this  account  much  proteid  must  be  sup- 
plied in  our  food  to  keej)  the  body  strong. 

3.  Fat  furnishes  the  body  fuel  for  warmth  and  energy 
for  motion.     More  fat  should  be  eaten  in  cold  than  in  warm 


THE  FOOD   COMPONENTS  13 

weather;  and  more  while  at  physical  work  than  when  at 
mental  work.  Growing  children,  as  a  rule,  need  much 
fat. 

4.  Sugar  should  be  eaten  only  in  small  quantities.  Many 
children  are  made  weak  and  sickly  by  eating  too  much 
candy  and  other  sweets. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  some  foods  that  contain  much  proteid. 

2.  Mention  some  foods  rich  in  fat. 

3.  What  does  starch  furnish  the  body? 

4.  Name  a  few  foods  that  have  much  starch. 

5.  Why  do  people  in  the  polar  regions  eat  much  fat? 

6.  In  what  drink  and  food  is  lime  found? 

7.  What  minerals  needed  by  the  body  are  in  the  vege- 
tables that  grow  underground? 

8.  What  vegetables  contain  iron? 

9.  In  what  common  food  is  phosphorus  present? 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    STORY    OF    FOOD   IN    BODY    BUILDING 

DIGESTION  —  THE    FOOD   PASSAGE    AND    ITS    FLUID 
STATIONS 

Importance  of  Digestion.  --  We  have  learned  of  what 
use  the  different  food  components  are  to  the  body. 
Is  finding  out  which  of  these  the  common  foods  con- 
tain all  that  is  now  necessary  for  wise  building?  That 
might  be  true  if  the  body  could  get  the  needed  ma- 
terials from  all  foods  with  equal  ease. 

But  such  is  not  the  case.  It  is  much  harder  for  the 
useful  components  to  be  taken  from  some  foods  than 
it  is  from  others.  The  changing  of  food  in  the  body 
to  a  form  from  which  building  materials  can  readily 
be  taken  into  the  blood  is  called  digestion. 

Suppose  we  were  sure  that  our  future  wealth  would 
depend  upon  how  well  we  knew  arithmetic.  Very 
likely  we  should  need  little  urging  to  study  that  sub- 
ject as  well  as  we  possibly  could.  Our  greatest  wealth 
in  the  future  —  health  and  happiness  —  will  depend 
largely  upon  our  digestion.  Fortunately  what  we  need 
to  know  about  it  can  be  learned  much  more  easily 
than  arithmetic,  for  there  are  no  long  tables  to  com- 

14 


THE  FOOD   PASSAGE  AND  ITS  FLUID   STATIONS      15 


mit  to  memory.  Indeed,  the  process  of  digestion  is 
so  curious  that  its  study  will  be  pleasure  rather  than 
work. 

Most  foods  are  solids.  Blood  is  a  liquid.  For  this 
reason  food  has  to  be  dissolved  or  made  liquid  in  form 
before  being  taken  into  the  blood.  In  fact,  digestion 
is  largely  a  process  of  dissolving  or  changing  the  form 
of  food.  We  shall  now 
see  where  and  by  what 
this  change  in  the  form 
of  food  is  brought 
about. 

The  Food  Canal.  - 
The  passage  in  the  body 
through  which  food 
passes  is  called  the  ali- 
mentary (al-i-men'- 
ta-ry)  or  food  canal. 
Its  parts  in  order  are 
the  mouth,  pharynx 

(far'inks),       esophagus  Alimentary  canal. 

(e-sof'a-gus),  stomach,  small  intestine,  and  large  intes- 
tine. The  small  and  large  intestines  together  are  often 
called  the  bowels.  The  length  of  this  passage  in  any 
person  is,  as  a  rule,  five  or  six  times  his  height. 

That  seems  very  long,  since  it  is,  at  the  most,  only 
a  few  feet  from  the  mouth  to  the  base  of  the  trunk. 


Vermiform   . 
Appendix 


16  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

More  than  two-thirds  of  this  length,  however,  is  in 
the  small  intestine,  which,  as  we  can  see  in  the  picture 
on  page  15,  lies  in  the  abdomen  in  coils. 

The  Digestive  Fluid  Stations.  —  In  five  places  along 
this  lengthy  passage  there  are  chemical  (kem'i-kal) 
stations  supplying  fluids  that  help  digest  food.  These 
stations  are  called  glands.  How  useful  they  are  to 
the  body,  we  shall  soon  see. 

Who  has  not  been  interested  in  fairy  stories  about 
common  things  being  changed  into  gold?  Here  is  a 
fact  more  interesting  and,  at  the  same  time,  true.  The 
fluids  from  the  glands  in  the  digestive  passage  change 
food  into  such  form  that  its  building  and  fuel  materials 
may  be  taken  into  the  blood.  Let  us  now  see  where 
in  the  digestive  passage  these  chemical  or  fluid  stations 
are. 

By  looking  at  the  picture  on  page  15  we  can  see  that 
the  first  set  is  in  the  mouth,  and  that  they  are  called 
salivary  glands.  The  fluid  they  secrete  is  named 
saliva.  The  next  set,  the  gastric  glands,  is  in  the  lin- 
ing of  the  stomach.  They  secrete  gastric  juice. 

In  the  picture  on  page  15  notice  the  point  where  the 
stomach  and  small  intestine  join.  Just  at  the  right 
of  this  point  is  another  chemical  station  in  the  food 
passage.  It  is  called  the  liver,  and  the  fluid  it  secretes 
is  named  bile  or  gall.  By  looking  carefully  at  the  pic- 
ture on  page  15  you  will  see  a  little  sac  called  the  gall 


THE  FOOD  PASSAGE  AND  ITS  FLUID   STATIONS      17 

bladder,  in  which  the  bile  or  gall  secreted  by  the  liver 
is  stored. 

Just  opposite  the  liver  and  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
small  intestine  is  the  pancreas  (pan'cre-as),  which  is 
also  a  chemical  or  fluid  station  of  our  food  canal. 
The  digestive  fluid  it  secretes  is  called  pancreatic  (pan'- 
kre-at'ik)  juice.  This  fluid  enters  the  intestine  through 
the  same  duct  as  the  bile  and  at  a  point  in  the  small 
intestine  near  the  stomach.  In  the  lining  of  the  small 
intestine  are  the  intestinal  glands,  the  fifth  and  last 
of  the  fluid-secreting  glands.  They  secrete  intestinal 
fluid. 

So  we  see  that  there  are  five  fluids  which  mix  with 
the  food  at  different  places  along  the  digestive  canal, 
and  aid  in  digestion.  After  years  of  careful  experi- 
ments, doctors  have  found  out  that  each  of  these  five 
fluids  has  its  special  work.  The  part  each  has  in  so 
changing  food  that  its  building  and  fuel  materials  can 
be  taken  into  the  blood,  we  shall  read  in  chapters 
that  follow. 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  It  is  harder  for  the  digestive  organs  to  take  the  useful 
components  from  some  foods  than  from  others. 

2.  The  changing  of  food  in  the  body  to  a  form  from  which 
building  materials  can  be  readily  taken  into  the  blood  is 
called  digestion. 

3.  Solid  food  must  be  changed  to  liquid  form  before  it 
can  be  taken  into  the  blood. 


18  THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

4.  The  passage  in  the  body  through  which  food  passes 
during  digestion  is  called  the  alimentary  or  food  canal.     Its 
length  is  about  five  or  six  times  a  person's  height. 

5.  The  parts  of  the  food  canal  in  order  are  the  mouth, 
the  pharynx,  the  esophagus,  the  stomach,  the  small  intestine, 
and  the  large  intestine. 

6.  Along  the  food  passage  there  are  five  different  places 
where  glands  furnish  fluids  that  assist  in  digestion. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  of  the  five  parts  of  the  food  canal  is  the  longest? 
What  part  of  the  length  of  the  entire  canal  is  it? 

2.  What  glands  are  in  the  mouth,  and  what  fluid  do  they 
secrete? 

3.  Where  and  by  what  glands  is  gastric  juice  secreted? 

4.  What  fluid  does  the  liver  secrete,  and  where  is  this 
fluid  stored? 

5.  By  what  is  pancreatic  juice  secreted? 

6.  Where  does  the  intestinal  juice  mix  with  the  food? 

7.  What  are  the  small  and  large  intestines  together  often 
called? 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    STORY    OF    FOOD    IN    BODY    BUILDING 

MASTICATION 

If  bread  or  any  similar  food  is  left  in  water,  it  becomes 
soaked,  and  its  parts  separate.  The  warmer  the  water, 
the  more  quickly  these  changes  take  place.  The 
smaller  the  parts  into  which  the  food  is  broken  before 
being  placed  in  the  water,  the  more  rapidly  it  will 
become  moistened.  If  certain  chemicals  are  added, 
greater  and  more  rapid  changes  will  take  place. 

The  Use  of  Saliva.  —  Something  similar  happens 
when  food  is  eaten.  The  action  of  the  jaws  in  chew- 
ing, and  the  movement  of  food  about  the  mouth, 
causes  saliva  to  pour  out  from  the  glands,  and  mix 
with  what  is  being  chewed.  The  longer  food  is  chewed, 
the  finer  it  becomes,  and  the  more  freely  saliva  mixes 
with  it. 

Saliva  is  the  fluid  that  keeps  the  inside  of  the  mouth 
moist.  Like  water,  saliva  moistens  food.  It  also 
contains  an  alkali  (al'ka-li)  that  digests  or  begins  the 
digestion  of  starch.  While  saliva  does  not  digest  the 
other  food  components,  it  aids  in  changing  them  to  a 

19 


20  THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE   OF  THE  BODY 

liquid  form,  thus  better  preparing  them  for  the  juices 
farther  on  in  the  food  passage. 

Benefits  from  Thoroughly  Chewing  Food.  —  Another 
great  benefit  comes  from  thoroughly  chewing  food. 
Our  appetite  is  satisfied  when  enough  has  been  eaten. 
This  is  because  food  in  a  liquid  or  semi-liquid  form 
affects  the  nerves  of  taste  on  the  tongue.  Poorly 
chewed  food  does  not  affect  these  nerves  of  taste,  and 
so  too  much  is  likely  to  be  eaten  before  the  appetite 
is  satisfied. 

Bad  Results  from  not  Chewing  Food  Thoroughly. — 
Three  bad  results  come  from  eating  too  fast  and  not 
chewing  the  food  thoroughly.  The  digestion  of  starch 
is  not  well  begun  in  the  mouth.  The  other  food  com- 
ponents are  not  properly  prepared  for  the  digestive 
juices  farther  on.  The  sense  of  taste  is  not  satisfied 
by  partly  chewed  food,  and  so  too  much  is  likely  to  be 
eaten. 

Have  you  ever  heard  a  person  say  that  his  stomach 
felt  as  heavy  as  lead?  Very  likely  he  had  been  eating 
too  fast.  On  that  account  his  stomach  was  overloaded 
with  food,  which  was  neither  well  divided  by  the  teeth 
nor  well  mixed  with  saliva.  No  wonder  that  it  seemed 
heavy  in  his  stomach. 

Effects  of  Cold  or  Acid  Foods  on  Digestion.  —  The 
following  is  another  important  fact  that  all  can  under- 
stand. The  normal  or  usual  temperature  (tem'per- 


MASTICATION  21 

a-tur)  of  the  inside  of  the  mouth  and  stomach  is  about 
98^°.  Look  at  a  thermometer,  and  notice  how  that  point 
is  marked.  The  digestive  juices  flow  freely  at  that  tem- 
perature, but  when,  from  any  cause,  the  inside  of  the 
mouth  or  stomach  becomes  cooler,  both  saliva  and  gas- 
tric juice  cease  mixing  freely  with  the  food. 

For  this  reason  much  cold  food  or  drink  should  not 
be  taken  with  our  meals.  That  is  as  plain  as  can  be. 
Another  point  equally  plain  is  that  very  little  acid 
food,  such  as  pickles,  should  be  eaten,  since  acid 
weakens  the  effect  of  saliva.  Much  water  also  weak- 
ens or  dilutes  both  saliva  and  gastric  juice.  Hence 
very  little  or  no  water  should  be  drunk  while  eat- 
ing. 

Loss  from  Hasty  Eating.  —  Children  often  eat  hastily 
to  get  out  quickly  to  play.  Of  course  they  do  not  stop 
to  think  that  it  takes  good  muscle  to  make  skillful 
players.  To  build  such  muscle  the  best  materials 
must  be  furnished  the  blood;  these  cannot  be  long 
supplied  by  poorly  digested  food. 

Thoroughly  chewing  the  food  and  mixing  it  with  saliva 
is  called  mastication  (mas-ti-ka/shun).  Complete  mas- 
tication is  one  thing  in  preparing  food  for  building  ma- 
terials in  our  bodies  over  which  we  have  full  control. 
It  is  easy  enough  to  eat  slowly  and  chew  thoroughly, 
if  one  only  gets  into  the  habit  of  doing  so.  One  does 
not  have  to  be  large  or  clever  to  learn  to  do  either. 


22 


TEE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


Only  a  little  care  and  thought  for  a  few  days  should 
fix  the  habit. 

Sometimes  people  go  to  doctors,  fearing  that  they 

have  some  se- 
rious disease  of 
the  digestive 
organs.  Often 
the  wise  doc- 
tor advises 
three  things: 
"  Chew  your 
food  thor- 
oughly. Drink 
little  or  no 
water  with  your 
meals.  Do  not 
take  cold  or 
acid  foods  or  drinks  with  your  meals."  Even  very 
little  people  can  follow  such  simple  but  wise  advice. 
Surely  any  child  can  understand  that  the  good  looks 
and  good  feelings  which  the  habit  of  thorough  mastica- 
tion is  likely  to  bring,  are  a  reward  for  which  they  may 
well  work  their  very  hardest. 

POINTS   FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  Few  things  can  count  more  toward  making  one  healthy, 
strong,  and  happy  than  forming  the  habit  of  eating  slowly 
and  thoroughly  chewing  one's  food  at  each  meal. 


The  wise  doctor  advises,  "  Chew  your  food  thor- 
oughly." 


MASTICATION  23 

2.  Taking  much  cold  food  or  drink  with  our  meals  lessens 
the  flow  of  digestive  juices,  and  thus  retards  digestion.     If 
used  at  all,  such  food  or  drink  should  always  be  taken  very 
slowly. 

3.  Water   dilutes   both   saliva   and   gastric   juice.     For 
this  reason  it  is  not  well  to  drink  water  at  meals,  nor  within 
a  half  hour  before  or  an  hour  or  more  after  mealtime. 

4.  By  chewing   food  thoroughly  we   keep    from  eating 
more  than  our  bodies  really  need. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  what  happens  to  bread  if  it  is  left  in  water. 

2.  What  fluid  keeps  the  inside  of  the  mouth  moist? 

3.  What  causes  saliva  to  pour  out  from  the  glands  in 
the  mouth? 

4.  What  component  of  food  does  saliva  digest  or  begin 
the  digestion  of? 

5.  Mention  three  bad  results  of  eating  too  fast. 

6.  Why  does  taking  cold  foods  or  drinks  with  meals 
retard  digestion? 

7.  What  effect  has  acid  on  the  work  of  saliva? 

8.  Tell  why  children  should  not  eat  hastily  to  get  out  to 
play. 

9.  What   three   things   about   eating   do   doctors   often 
advise  their  patients? 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    STORY    OF   FOOD   IN   BODY   BUILDING 

DIGESTION    IN    THE    STOMACH    AND    INTESTINES 

Stomach  Digestion.  —  Food  passes  from  the  mouth 
down  through  the  pharynx  and  esophagus  into  the 
stomach.  (See  picture,  page  15.)  In  the  lining  of  the 
stomach  are  thousands  of  little  glands  from  which  gas- 
tric juice  flows  and  mixes  with  the  food.  The  mixing 
process  is  assisted  by  the  muscles  of  the  stomach  which 
move  the  food  along.  In  the  half  of  the  stomach  near 
the  small  intestine,  these  muscles  also  keep  up  an  active 
churning  motion. 

Gastric  juice  digests  or  begins  the  digestion  of  pro- 
teid.  Food  remains  in  the  stomach  from  one  to  four 
or  five  hours.  During  this  time  it  is  changed  into  a 
soft  pulpy  substance  called  chyme.  The  muscle  at  the 
end  of  the  stomach,  the  pylorus  (pi-lo'  rus)  or  gate- 
keeper, then  allows  it  to  pass  into  the  small  intestine. 

Intestinal  Digestion.  —  In  the  small  intestine  bile, 
pancreatic  juice,  and  intestinal  fluid  mix  with  the 
chyme.  They  act  upon  the  fat  and  the  undigested 
starch  and  proteids,  and  through  their  action  the  chyme 

24 


STOMACH  AND  INTESTINAL   DIGESTION  25 

is  changed  to  a  liquid  substance  called  chyle.  On  ac- 
count of  the  great  length  of  the  small  intestine,  and  the 
fact  that  its  lining  lies  in  cres- 
cent-like ridges,  the  food  is,  as 
a  rule,  from  four  to  fifteen  hours 
in  passing  through  it.  Thus 
the  digestive  juices  are  given  smaii  intestine  cut  open  to 

show  the  folds  of  the  mucous 

a  long  time  to  do  their  work.       membrane. 

Absorption  (ab-sorp'shun).  —  But  how  does  the 
blood  get  its  building  and  fuel  materials  from  chyle? 
Growing  from  the  inner  lining  of  the  small  intestine 
are  tiny  hairlike  projections  (pro-jek'shiinz)  called  villi 
(vil'li).  Near  the  stomach  there  are  but  few  of  these, 
but  the  number  increases  until,  farther  on,  the  lining 
of  the  small  intestine  looks  quite  like  velvet,  because 
there  are  so  many. 

Even  though  they  are  so  tiny,  these  villi  contain 
blood  vessels,  which  soak  up  the  digested  part  of  the 
food.  It  is  thus  taken  into  the  blood  and  carried  to 
whatever  part  of  the  body  needs  such  materials. 

Waste  Products  of  Digestion.  —  What  becomes  of 
the  waste  and  the  undigested  parts  of  the  food?  The 
muscles  of  the  abdomen  and  the  intestine  force  these 
through  the  large  intestine  and  out  of  the  body.  It  is 
most  important  that  the  body  should  rid  itself  of  these 
waste  materials  each  day.  Often  they  are  very  poison- 
ous. If  they  remain  too  long  in  the  intestine,  this 


26  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

poison   is   taken   into   the   blood,    causing   headache, 
vomiting,,  and  other  serious  sickness. 

Such  unpleasant  results  may  be  prevented  by  a 
thorough  movement  of  the  bowels  daily.  For  several 
good  reasons,  early  in  the  morning  is  the  best  time. 
Attending  to  this  important  duty  at  a  regular  hour  each 
day  will  soon  form  the  correct  habit.  Like  thorough 
mastication,  it  is  one  of  the  few  habits  that  may  add 
much  to  our  comfort  and  usefulness.  Its  neglect  will 
in  time  bring  discomfort  and  ill  health. 

POINTS  FOR  SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  If  food  is  not  thoroughly  chewed,  gastric  juice  does 
not  act  upon  it  readily. 

2.  We  should  not  drink  much  water  at  meals,  because  it 
dilutes  the  gastric  juice. 

3.  Very  little  cold  food  or  drink  should  be  taken  with  our 
meals.     It  may  lower  the  temperature  of  the  stomach  and 
lessen  the  flow  of  gastric  juice. 

4.  We   should   form   the   habit   of   having   a   thorough 
movement  of  the  bowels  daily.     This    habit  will    greatly 
assist  us  in  keeping  well  and  strong. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  component  of  food  does  gastric  juice  digest  or 
begin  the  digestion  of  ? 

2.  About  how  long  does  food  remain  in  the  stomach? 

3.  What  three  digestive  fluids  act  upon  chyme  in  the  small 
intestine? 

4.  Why  does  it  take  food  several  hours  to  pass  through 
the  small  intestine?      Where  are  the  villi?      Tell  their  use. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    STORY    OF    FOOD    IN    BODY   BUILDING 

SOME    FACTS    TO    REMEMBER    ABOUT    EATING 

The  more  a  builder  knows  about  his  materials  and 
how  to  use  them,  the  better  the  house  he  can  construct. 
The  more  we  know  about  foods  and  digestion,  the 
healthier  and  stronger  we  can  be.  Of  course  we  must 
put  the  knowledge  into  daily  practice,  or  it  will  do  us 
little  good. 

The  glands  in  our  food  canal  secrete  or  take  their 
juices  from  the  blood.  When  any  part  of  the  body  is 
being  actively  used,  an  extra  supply  of  blood  goes  to 
that  part.  At  mealtime  the  stomach,  of  course,  needs 
an  extra  supply  of  blood  from  which  its  glands  may  take 
gastric  juice. 

Hard  Work  or  Play  neap  Mealtime.  —  If  we  play  or 
work  hard  just  before  meals,  our  arms,  legs,  brains, 
or  some  other  parts  of  the  body  are  using  more  blood 
than  usual.  This  being  the  case,  it  takes  the  stomach 
longer  to  get  the  large  supply  of  blood  needed  by  its 
muscles  and  glands  to  digest  the  food  properly.  Hence 
if  this  practice  is  often  followed,  digestion  is  likely  to 
be  weakened. 

27 


28  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

We  should  remember  not  to  study,  work,  or  play 
hard  just  before  or  soon  after  meals.  If  we  can  avoid 
doing  so,  it  is  also  well  not  to  go  to  meals  with  either 
mind  or  body  very  tired.  A  few  minutes'  rest  will  often 
get  all  the  organs  in  better  condition  for  work.  A  little 
care  in  this  respect  will  enable  us  both  to  work  and  to 


Table  set  for  four  persons. 

play  better  at  the  right  time.  But  some  children  may 
say,  "  We  won't  stop  playing  hard  on  account  of  diges- 
tion, —  we  are  having  so  much  fun  " ;  or,  "  We  simply 
must  do  this  study  now  or  lose  credit !  "  Wise  busi- 
ness men  invest  for  the  future.  Is  it  not  wise,  too,  for 
children  to  think  of  future  enjoyment  both  as  to  play 
and  to  study? 

Effect  of  Excitement  on  Digestion.  —  Sorrow  or  excite- 
ment at  meals  lessens  the  flow  of  the  digestive  juices. 
It  is  the  lack  of  saliva  that  makes  one's  mouth  so  dry 
when  speaking  the  first  piece  in  public.  A  man  who 
is  nervous  about  speaking  at  a  public  dinner  does  not 


SOME  FACTS   TO  REMEMBER  ABOUT  EATING        29 

eat  very  much.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  the  gastric 
juice  is  not  flowing  freely. 

Perhaps  you  have  seen  a  person  lose  his  appetite 
at  a  meal  on  account  of  receiving  an  unexpected  tele- 
gram. Laughing  and  being 
happy  stimulate  the  diges- 
tive glands  to  better  ac- 
tion. For  this  reason  it 
is  well  to  be  free  from 
thought  and  care  at  meal- 
time and  thoroughly  enjoy 
ourselves.  Lessons,  work, 
anything  that  causes  hard 
thought  or  may  excite  worry, 
should  be  put  aside  from 
the  mind. 

Cooking  and  serving 
Food.  —  Sometimes  when 
we  are  hungry,  the  very 
smell  of  food  causes  saliva 
to  pour  out  into  our 
mouths.  If  we  speak  of  it 
at  all,  we  say,  "  That  food 

-,  ,-,  ,,  An  invalid's  tray. 

makes  my  mouth  water. 

Savory  food  makes  the  glands  of  both  the  mouth  and 
stomach  pour  out  their  juice  more  freely  than  unsa- 
vory food.  Food  that  looks  appetizing  (ap'pe-tiz-mg) 


30  TEE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

has  a  similar  effect;  and  so  does  that  which  tastes  well. 
All  of  these  facts  show  why  our  meals  should  be  well 
cooked  and  attractively  served. 

For  a  similar  reason  it  is  well  to  commence  a  meal 
with  some  food  that  has  a  pleasing  taste.  Soup  is 
especially  good  for  this  purpose.  Being  a  liquid,  it 
affects  the  taste  nerVes  of  the  tongue  more  quickly 
than  solid  food.  The  pleasant  taste  and  the  odor  both 
stimulate  the  glands  of  the  mouth  and  stomach.  Its 
temperature,  if  not  too  hot,  has  a  similar  effect. 

Resting  the  Digestive  Organs.  —  How  angry  it  often 
makes  us  to  see  a  man  whip  a  horse  that  seems  to  be 
doing  its  very  best!  Some  people  use  just  as  little 
sense  with  their  digestive  organs.  How?  They  over- 
load their  stomachs  with  half-chewed  food,  and  then 
take  medicine  to  force  the  digestive  organs  to  make  up 
for  their  lack  of  care  and  wisdom. 

Usually  (u'zhu-al-ly)  the  medicine  does  spur  the 
glands  to  harder  work,  and  the  bowels  are  made  to 
move.  The  glands  have  to  rest,  however,  to  make 
up  for  the  overwork,  and  so  they  may  not  be  able 
readily  to  digest  the  next  meal  that  arrives.  We  all 
know  how  much  benefit  is  often  gained  from  a  few 
hours'  sleep,  when  we  are  tired.  Rest  is  often  the 
best  remedy  for  overworked  digestive  organs.  If  one 
feels  that  he  has  eaten  too  much,  it  is  sensible  to  eat 
very  little  or  not  at  all  for  a  meal  or  two. 


SOME  FACTS   TO  REMEMBER  ABOUT  EATING        31 

Between  Meals.  —  Many  children  do  not  seem  to 
know  that  the  digestive  organs  must  have  some  regular 
rest.  Their  parents,  too,  appear  to  be  ignorant  of  the 
same  thing.  Such  children  eat  candy,  cake,  and  other 
food  at  recess,  during  school  hours,  or  any  time  they 
happen  to  want  to  eat,  when  at  home. 

The  parents  wonder  why  these  children  have  so  little 
appetite  at  the  regular  meals.  They  cannot  under- 
stand why  neither  the  beauty  nor  the  health  of  which 
the  baby  years  gave  promise  is  present.  They  are 
also  puzzled  to  know  what  makes  their  children  so 
cross  and  ill-tempered. 

Eating  between  meals  might  easily  be  the  cause  of 
all  these  things.  Their  children's  digestive  organs  have  > 
not  had  the  rest  that  they  needed,  and  so  have  worked 
badly.  As  a  natural  result,  their  food  has  not  been 
well  digested,  and,  of  course,  neither  their  health  nor 
their  feelings  can  be  the  best.  Such  children  very 
likely  think  themselves  most  fortunate  to  get  these 
"  goodies  "  when  they  want  them.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  unfortunate  things  possible  for 
them. 

Soaking  Foods.  —  Another  very  bad  habit  is  that 
of  soaking  cookies,  cake,  or  any  other  food  in  some 
liquid  we  are  taking  with  our  meals.  Such  food  usually 
contains  much  starch  which  should  be  thoroughly 
mixed  with  saliva  before'  passing  into  the  stomach. 


32  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

Of  course,  after  being  soaked  it  is  readily  swallowed 
without  mastication. 

Tobacco  and  Digestion.  —  Some  men  and  a  few  boys 
use  tobacco.  It  is  not  a  clean  habit.  Besides  injuring 
in  other  ways,  it  wastes  saliva,  because  of  the  large 
amount  of  expectoration  (eks-pek'to-ra'shun).  On  ac- 
count of  the  waste  of  saliva,  chewing  gum  is  also  a 
habit  that  one  should  avoid. 

Alcohol  and  Digestion.  —  There  are  people  who  use 
alcoholic  drinks  with  meals,  thinking  that  they  assist 
digestion.  This  is  a  great  mistake.  It  has  been 
proved  that  such  drinks  inflame  the  stomach  and  re- 
tard digestion.  Alcohol  is  not  a  food,  and  should  be 
taken  only  when  prescribed  by  a  physician. 

POINTS  FOR  SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  Rest  from  hard  play  or  study  for  a  few  minutes  before 
and  for  a  half  hour  or  more  after  meals  will  make  us  able  to 
work  and  to  play  better  at  other  times.     It. will  also  help 
us  to  keep  in  condition  for  enjoying  both  work  and  play, 
no  matter  how  old  we  may  become.       ;    » 

2.  Happiness  at  mealtime  stimulates  the  digestive  glands 
to  better  work.     Sadness  or  excitement  has  the  opposite 
effect. 

3.  Food  that  looks  well  and  has  a  pleasing  taste  causes 
the  digestive  glands  to  work  better  than  food  that  is  not 
pleasing. 

4.  Rest  is  often  the  best  cure  for  digestive  organs  that 
have  been  overworked.    One  should  take  little  or  no  medicine, 
unless  advised  to  do  so  by  a  physician. 


SOME  FACTS    TO  REMEMBER  ABOUT  EATING        33 

5.  Eating  between  meals  causes  much  ill  health.  It  is 
a  poor  practice  for  children  who  really  enjoy  fun,  and  care 
to  look  their  best. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  From  what  do  the  digestive  glands  take  their  juices? 

2.  Why  does  hard  study  or  play  just  before  or  soon  after 
meals  retard  digestion? 

3.  What  effect  has  sorrow  or  excitement  upon  digestion, 
and  why? 

4.  How  does  the  smell  of  savory  food  affect  the  digestive 
glands? 

5.  Why  is  soup  a  good  food  with  which  to  begin  a  hearty 
meal? 

6.  Tell  how  the  way  some  people  treat  their  stomachs 
is  like  the  bad  treatment  of  an  overloaded  horse. 

7.  Why  is  rest  one  of  the  best  remedies  for  overeating? 
.8.    Mention  some  bad  effects  of  eating  between  meals. 

9.  Tell  why  soaking  food  that  we  are  about  to  eat  is 
an  unwise  habit. 

10.  Tell  why  using  tobacco  is  not  good  for  digestion. 

11.  Why  should  gum  chewing  be  avoided? 

12.  Give  two  good  reasons  why  alcoholic  drinks  are  not 
good  for  digestion. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE    STORY    OF    FOOD    IN    BODY    BUILDING 
MILK    AND    ITS    PRODUCTS 

We  have  now  learned  about  the  useful  components 
of  food,  and  how  the  digestive  juices  prepare  them  for 
the  blood.  From  these  facts  we  know  that  the  value 
of  what  we  eat,  to  the  body,  may  be  judged  by  two 
things.  First,  which  and  how  much  of  the  useful 
food  components  does  the  food  contain?  Second, 
with  what  ease  can  the  digestive  juices  separate  these 
from  the  waste  and  make  use  of  them? 

For  some  years  we  may  have  been  eating  many  com- 
mon foods  largely  because  we  liked  them,  and  with 
little  or  no  knowledge  as  to  the  benefit  our  bodies 
might  receive  from  them.  Surely  it  will  now  be  inter- 
esting to  learn  about  their  building  and  fuel  value,  and 
ease  of  digestion.  Who  can  tell  how  much  benefit  this 
information  may  be  to  some  of  us,  if  we  are  sensible 
enough  to  make  use  of  it  at  our  daily  meals? 

Components  of  Milk.  --  Milk  is  about  seven-eighths 
water.  The  other  eighth  is  made  up  of  nearly  equal 
parts  of  sugar,  fat,  and  proteid,  and  a  much  smaller 
amount  of  mineral  salts.  Since  so  much  of  milk  is 

34 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  35 

water,  one  might  think  its  food  value  slight.  Never- 
theless, since  it  contains  all  the  building  and  fuel  com- 
ponents the  body  needs,  and  is,  as  a  rule,  easily  digested, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  foods. 

Cream.  —  Few  children  need  to  be  told  what  cream 
is,  for  they  have  seen  it  taken  from  the  top  of  the 
bottle  or  can  of  milk.  Cream  rises  to  the  top  of  milk 
that  is  left  standing  because  it  is  lighter  in  weight  than 
the  rest.  From  one-fifth  to  two-fifths  of  cream  is  fat. 
Cream  sells  for  about  four  times  as  much  as  milk. 
For  this  reason,  dishonest  dealers  skim  some  of  the 
cream  off  before  delivering  milk  to  customers.  Such 
dealers  may  also  put  skimmed  milk  or  water  into  their 
milk  to  increase  the  quantity.  In  both  cases  the  value 
of  the  milk  as  food  is  decreased. 

It  is  fortunate  that  such  fraud  can  be  readily  de- 
tected. When  pure  milk  is  poured  from  a  glass,  it 
will  not  run  off,  as  will  water  or  tea,  but  some  of  it 
will  cling  to  the  sides.  If  the  cream  that  rises  on  milk 
is  not  from  one-tenth  to  one-fifth  of  the  whole,  then  we 
may  know  the  milk  is  not  as  pure  as  it  should  be. 
When  milk  looks  thin  or  has  a  bluish  color,  we  may 
be  quite  sure  that  it  is  skimmed  or  watered.* 

Keeping  Milk  Sweet.  --To  be  valuable  as  food,  milk 
must  also  be  sweet.  The  air  contains  millions  of  veg- 
etable organisms  (or'gan-izmz),  called  bacteria  (bak- 
te'ri-a),  which  are  too  small  to  be  seen  without  a 


36  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

microscope  (rm'kro-skop).  Later  we  shall  learn  that 
some  of  these  produce  disease.  Others  bring  about  the 
molding  or  decay  of  food,  and  still  others  cause  milk  to 
sour. 

Bacteria  and  Milk.  —  Under  favorable  conditions 
bacteria  increase  so  rapidly  that  one  may  multiply  to  a 
colony  of  several  millions  in  twenty-four  hours.  This 
is  the  reason  they  can  do  so  much  damage.  They  can 
do  little  harm,  however,  in  a  temperature  of  from 
thirty-two  to  fifty  degrees.  (See  picture  of  thermometer, 
page  80.)  A  temperature  of  from  one  hundred  fifty- 
five  to  two  hundred  two  degrees  destroys  them,  if  it 
is  kept  at  that  point  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 

Pasteurized  and  Sterilized  Milk. — Milk  that  has  been 
kept  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  one 
hundred  fifty-five  degrees  is  called  "  pasteurized " 
milk,  and  the  name  "  sterilized  "  milk  is  given  when  it 
has  been  kept  at  a  temperature  of  two  hundred  two 
degrees  fifteen  minutes.  Either  can  usually  be  bought 
in  cities.  Neither  digests  as  readily  as  milk  that  has 
not  been  heated.  In  hot  weather,  however,  or  at  any 
time  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the  milk  has  not  been 
carefully  handled,  it  is  well  to  pasteurize  or  sterilize  it. 
It  will  then  keep  better,  and  there  is  less  chance  of  in- 
jury to  the  little  children  that  drink  it. 

Care  of  Milk.  —  Bacteria  get  into  milk  from  the 
milker's  hands,  from  the  cow,  from  the  air  of  the  barn, 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


37 


or  from  unclean  bottles  or  dishes.  The  cleaner  all  of 
these  are  kept,  the  smaller  the  number  of  bacteria 
that  will  get  into  the  milk.  Scarlet  fever  and  similar 
diseases  are  often  spread  by  means  of  milk.  No  one  who 
is  recovering  from  such  diseases  or  is  in  anyway  exposed 


Milking  time. 

to  them  should  milk  cows  or  do  any  work  about  a 
dairy.  After  milking,  the  dairyman  strains  the  milk. 
This  should  be  done  in  a  clean,  cool  milk  house  away 
from  the  dust  of  the  barn.  When  milk  is  carelessly 
handled,  ten  thousand  or  more  bacteria  are  often  found 
in  one  drop.  But  when  the  dairy  is  clean  and  the  milk 
is  handled  with  great  care,  it  may  have  as  few  as  from 


38  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

one  hundred  to  two  hundred  bacteria  in  a  drop.  The 
latter  milk  will  keep  sweet  much  longer  than  the  former. 

Milk  should  be  placed  on  ice  soon  after  milking. 
Then  the  bacteria  it  contains  will  not  increase  so  fast 
as  they  would  in  warm  air.  All  cans,  bottles,  and  other 
utensils  used  in  handling  milk  should  be  thoroughly 
cleansed  in  boiling  hot  water  to  kill  the  bacteria  that 
may  have  remained  on  the  inside.  There  should  not 
be  any  deposit  of  dirt  in  the  bottom  of  a  dish  in  which 
milk  has  been  standing.  Such  a  deposit  is  a  sign  of 
careless  handling  at  the  dairy. 

Glass  can  be  cleaned  much  more  readily  than  tin. 
For  this  reason  it  is  better  to  buy  milk  that  is  delivered 
in  glass  bottles.  As  soon  as  milk  is  delivered,  it  should 
be  placed  in  the  ice  box  or  in  the  coolest  place  in  the 
house.  A  dish  containing  milk  should  not  be  left 
uncovered,  except  when  in  actual  use  on  the  table. 

Souring  Milk.  —  It  is  natural  for  milk  to  sour  when 
left  some  time  in  a  warm  place.  To  keep  milk  from 
souring,  dishonest  dealers  sometimes,  in  warm  weather, 
put  certain  drugs  in  it.  The  use  of  drugs  for  this  pur- 
pose is  forbidden  by  law,  since  milk  containing  them 
may  be  injurious.  If  milk  does  not  sour  after  being 
left  for  some  hours  in  a  warm  place,  it  is  a  sign  that 
drugs  have  been  used  in  it.  We  should  be  very  careful 
not  to  buy  such  milk,  especially  when  there  are  little 
children  in  the  family. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  39 

No  matter  who  is  using  the  milk,  it  is  well  to  be  very 
particular  about  its  care.  If  there  is  a  baby  in  the 
house,  extra  pains  should  be  taken.  Thousands  of 
these  helpless  infants  die  each  year  because  of  impure 
and  carelessly  handled  milk. 

Our  Milk  Dealer.  —  It  is  important  to  know  three 
things  about  the  one  from  whom  we  buy  milk.  First, 
that  he  is  clean.  Second,  that  his  cow  stables  are  kept 
neat  and  clean,  and  likewise  his  helpers.  Third,  that 
he  has  a  tidy  milk  house,  with  plenty  of  ice  to  keep  the 
milk  cool,  and  a  large  supply  of  hot  water  with  which 
to  clean  utensils  that  have  been  used  in  handling  the 
milk.  A  visit  costing  but  a  few  cents  carfare  will  often 
give  us  this  information.  This  is  indeed  but  a  small 
thing,  yet  it  might  easily  save  the  life  or  health  of  a 
precious  child. 

Skimmed  Milk.  -  -  The  part  of  milk  that  is  left  after 
the  cream  has  been  taken  off  is  called  skimmed  milk. 
Although  only  a  very  little  fat  is  left  in  skimmed  milk, 
it  still  has  the  other  components,  and  so  is  a  useful 
food.  Its  cost  is  usually  less  than  half  that  of  pure 
milk.  Families  who  cannot  afford  much  of  the  latter 
will  find  skimmed  milk  an  inexpensive  and  useful  food. 

Condensed  Milk.  —  Condensed  milk  is  made  as  fol- 
lows. First  the  water  is  evaporated.  Then  the  re- 
maining components  are  heated  to  a  high  temperature 
to  kill  all  bacteria.  Some  sugar  is  added,  and  it  is 


40  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

sealed  up  in  cans.  In  these  it  is  sent  long  distances 
and  does  not  spoil.  Much  use  is  made  of  condensed 
milk  in  regions  where  but  few  cows  are  kept. 

Butter  and  Buttermilk.  —  Butter  is  made  by  churning 
cream,  and  so  is  composed  mostly  of  fat  and  water. 
It  is  an  excellent  food,  and  one  all  should  try  to  like. 
Buttermilk  is  what  is  left  of  the  churned  cream  after 
the  butter  has  been  removed.  It  is  a  refreshing  and 
healthful  drink. 

Cheese.  —  Cheese  is  made  from  sour  milk.  The 
kinds  and  the  cost  depend  upon  the  amount  of  cream 
that  is  left  in  the  milk,  —  the  more  cream,  the  greater 
the  cost.  Cheese  is  rich  in  food  elements,  but  is  diffi- 
cult for  many  to  digest.  On  this  account  only  a  small 
piece  should,  as  a  rule,  be  eaten  at  a  meal;  some  pre- 
fer not  to  eat  cheese  at  all. 

POINTS  FOR  SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  Pure  milk  contains  all  the  necessary  building  and  fuel 
components,    and   so  is   a  most  valuable  food.     In  some 
diseases  it  is  the  best  food  for  the  sick  person  to  use  for  days, 
and  even  weeks  at  a  time.     It  is  important  to  cultivate  a 
liking  for  milk,  or  at  least  not  to  dislike  it. 

2.  It  is  much  better  to  buy  milk  that  is  delivered  in 
bottles  than  that  which  is  carried  from  house  to  house  in 
cans. 

3.  As  soon  as  milk  is  delivered,  it  should  be  put  in  the 
coolest  place  in  the  house,  and  kept  there  except  when  in 
use.     A  cool  temperature  keeps  bacteria  from  multiplying 
rapidly  in  milk. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  41 

4.    No  one  who  is  exposed  to  scarlet  fever  and  similar 
diseases  should  in  any  way  help  in  preparing  milk  for  sale. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  About  what  part  of  milk  is  water? 

2.  Why  is  milk  a  most  valuable  food? 

3.  About  what  part  of  the  milk  should  cream  be? 

4.  Mention  three  ways  in  which  you  can  tell  whether 
milk  is  pure. 

5.  What  causes  milk  to  sour? 

6.  Mention  two  ways  in  which  bacteria  may  be  kept 
from  multiplying  in  milk. 

7.  State  some  ways  in  which  great  pains  should  be  taken 
in  handling  milk. 

8.  Tell  the  use  of  ice  in  a  dairy;  of  hot  water. 

9.  How  do  dishonest  dealers  prevent  the  souring  of 
milk  in  warm  weather? 

10.  Why  should    homes  in  which  there  is    a  baby  be 
especially  careful  as  to  the  purity  and  source  of  the  milk? 

11.  Tell  what  is  said  of  skimmed  milk. 

12.  How  is  condensed  milk  prepared? 

13.  Of  what  is  butter  mostly  composed? 

14.  What  is  said  of  buttermilk? 

15.  From  what  is  cheese  made? 

16.  Why  should  only  a  little  cheese  usually  be  eaten  at 
a  meal? 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE    STORY    OF   FOOD    IN    BODY    BUILDING 

EGGS,    MEAT,    AND    FISH 

Egg  Components.  —  The  white  of  an  egg  is  largely 
proteid,  and  the  yolk  is  well  stored  with  fat.     Besides 

being  about  seven-tenths 
water,  the  inside  of  an  egg 
also  has  some  valuable  min- 
eral salts. 

Digestion  of^)ggs.  —  Eggs 
are  easily  digested,  and,  like 
milk,  are  among  the  most 
useful  of  foods.  Soft-cooked 
eggs  are  more  readily  di- 
gested than  are  hard-cooked. 
Coddled,  soft-poached,  and 
Graphic  composition  of  an  egg.  soft-boiled  are  among  the 

Ash  represents  the  mineral  salts.        m()gt  digestible   forms  Jn 

which  eggs  are  prepared,  and  fried  eggs  are  among 
the  least  readily  digested.  When  an  egg  is  placed 
in  boiling  water  and  left  a  few  minutes  off  the  stove, 
it  is  called  a  coddled  egg.  This  is  the  best  way  to  pre- 
pare them  for  little  children  or  invalids. 

42 


EGGS,   MEAT,   AND  FISH  43 

Keeping  Eggs  Fresh. — The  shell  of  an  egg  is  porous, 
and  so  water  from  its  inside  is  evaporated  through  the 
shell.  Bacteria  can  also  pass  through  the  shell  to  the 
inside  of  the  egg.  Cool  air  takes  up  water  less  readily 
than  warm  air.  The  cooler  air  is,  the  less  rapidly 
bacteria  can  multiply  in  it.  For  both  of  these  reasons 
eggs  should  be  kept  in  the  coolest  place  in  the  house, 
if  they  are  to  remain  fit  for  use. 

Because  eggs  are  such  nutritious  (nu-trish'  us)  food 
and  so  easily  digested,  they  are  often  fed  to  the  sick. 
Now  the  fresher  the  eggs,  the  pleasanter  they  are  to 
the  taste,  and  the  better  food  they  make.  When  an 
egg  is  broken,  if  it  is  fresh,  the  yolk  will  hold  together 
well;  but  if  it  is  stale,  the  yolk  will  spread  apart. 

Components  and  Digestion  of  Meats.  —  Meat  contains 
fat,  proteid,  water,  and  mineral  salts.  Chicken  and 
mutton  are  among  the  most  easily  digested  meats. 
Beef  and  lamb  are  both  much  used  and  not  hard  to 
digest.  Veal  and  pork  are  among  the  most  difficult 
meats  to  digest.  Dried  beef  is  not  as  easy  to  digest  as 
fresh  beef.  Salted  and  smoked  pork  (ham  and  bacon) 
is  more  easily  digested  than  fresh  pork.  Indeed,  boiled 
ham  and  crisply  fried  bacon  are  often  fed  to  invalids. 

How  to  tell  Bad  Meat.  — Veal  that  has  been  killed 
too  young  is  called  "  bob  "  veal.  It  can  be  told  by 
its  flabby  flesh  and  bluish  color.  It  is  not  fit  for  food. 
Any  meat  should  feel  dry  and  firm  after  being  kept  in 


44  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

a  cool  place;  if  it  is  wet  and  flabby,  it  is  probably 
not  good.  Bad  pork  is  dotted  with  grayish  white 
spots.  Sausage  is  not  a  safe  food,  because  dishonest 
dealers  make  it  from  bad  pork. 

Preparing  Meats  and  Soups.  —  Heat  hardens  the 
surface  of  meat  and  thus  keeps  the  juices  from  running 
out.  For  this  reason,  in  cooking,  meat  should  be  placed 
in  a  very  hot  oven  or  over  a  hot  flame.  The  heat  may 
be  afterward  reduced,  so  that  only  the  outer  surface 
becomes  hardened.  Meat  prepared  in  this  way  tastes 
better  and  digests  more  easily  than  when  the  juices  are 
allowed  to  escape  and  the  fibers  to  harden  all  through. 

In  making  soups  from  meat,  it  is  well  to  draw  out 
all  the  juice  possible.  Therefore  soup  meat  is  placed  in 
cold  water  and  left  standing  for  hours  over  a  slow  fire. 
Meat  is  thought  to  be  the  most  readily  digested  when 
it  is  rare 'broiled  or  roasted.  Pork,  however,  should 
always  be  well  done,  since  it  often  contains  injurious 
worms,  called  trichinae,  which  are  too  small  to  be  seen. 

Fish.  —  Like  meat,  fish  is  well  supplied  with  proteid, 
fat,  water,  and  mineral  salts.  Fish  are  not  good  if  the 
odor  is  bad,  or  if  the  flesh  feels  soft,  flabby,  or  spongy, 
or  is  of  either  a  yellowish  or  a  bluish  color.  Should  the 
water  in  which  fish  is  washed  or  boiled  blacken  silver, 
it  is  likely  to  be  poisonous. 

Fish  is  best  when  boiled  or  baked,  and  in  cooking 
it  should  be  at  once  put  into  a  very  hot  place.  Fish 


EGGS,   MEAT,   AND  FISH 


45 


46  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  TEE  BODY 

is  likely  to  be  more  wholesome  in  summer  than  in 
winter,  since  after  thawing,  poisons  sometimes  develop 
in  it.  Salmon  and  other  fish  are  put  up  in  tin  cans. 
After  these  are  opened,  they  should  not  be  left  in  the 
can  or  long  exposed  to  the  air.  When  they  are  left 
in  this  way,  they  sometimes  become  unwholesome. 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  Eggs  are  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  foods.     It  is  well 
to  form  a  liking  for  eggs,  because  they  are  often  very  bene- 
ficial in  severe  sickness. 

2.  Eggs  are  an  excellent  food  for  breakfast  or  lunch. 
Even  in  winter,  when  they  often  cost  forty-five    or    fifty 
cents  a  dozen,  it  is  better  to  eat  eggs  at  these  meals  than 
meat. 

3.  Some  people  think  they  must  eat  meat  to  be  strong. 
This  is  not  true,  because  there  are  many  strong  people  who 
do  not  eat  meat  at  all.     Other  foods  have  the  same  building 
and  fuel  components. 

4.  There  are  many  who  eat  too  much  meat.     Unless  one 
is  working  at  hard  physical  labor,  it  is  better  not  to  eat 
meat  more  than  once  a  day. 

5.  Either  meat  or  fish  that  has  a  bad  taste  or  odor  before 
or  after  cooking  should  not  be  eaten. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  what  useful  food  components  an  egg  contains. 

2.  What  are  coddled  eggs?     What  i»  said  of  fried  eggs? 

3.  Why  should  eggs  be  kept  in  the  coolest  place  in  the 
house? 

4.  How  can  one  tell  whether  an  egg  is  stale? 

5.  Tell  all  you  can  that  is  said  about  eggs. 


EGGS,   MEAT,  AND  FISH  47 

6.  Name  two  meats  that  are  among  the  most  easy  to 
digest;    two  that  are  among  the  most  difficult. 

7.  How  may  bad  meat  be  told? 

8.  Why  is  sausage  not  a  safe  food? 

9.  Tell  what  is  said  about  cooking  meats;    about  pre- 
paring soups. 

10.  Why  should  pork  always  be  cooked  well  done? 

11.  What  meats  are  most  readily  digested? 

12.  What  is  said  of  fried  meats? 

13.  Tell  all  you  can  remember  that  is  said  about  meats 
and  their  preparation  for  food. 

14.  Why  is  fish  valuable  food? 

15.  When  is  fish  unfit  for  use? 

16.  Tell  what  is  said  about  canned  fish. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE    STORY   OF   FOOD   IN   BODY   BUILDING 

GRAINS   AND    GRAIN    FOODS 

Wheat.  —  Of  the  grains  wheat  is  the  most  used  as 
food  in  this  country.  About  three-fifths  of  wheat  is 
starch,  one-eighth  proteid,  and  one-seventh  water. 
Wheat  also  has  very  small  parts  of  sugar  and  fat,  and 
is  well  supplied  with  mineral  salts. 

Corn  and  Oatmeal.  —  Corn  has  less  proteid  than 
wheat,  and  more  than  twice  as  much  fat;  but  it  is  less 
readily  digested.  Oatmeal  contains  about  three  times 
as  much  fat,  twice  as  much  mineral  salts,  and  only  a 
little  less  proteid  than  wheat.  Oatmeal  should  be 
cooked  a  long  time.  When  thoroughly  cooked,  it  is 
an  excellent  food,  especially  in  winter. 

Rice.  —  Rice  has  quite  a  little  more  starch  than 
wheat  and  nearly  as  much  fat,  but  only  about  half  the 
amount  of  proteid.  It  is  often  fed  to  invalids  because 
it  is  readily  digested.  In  several  countries  of  Asia 
rice  is  the  principal  food.  Since  rice  has  but  little  fat 
and  proteid,  it  should  be  eaten  with  foods  that  supply 
these  necessary  elements. 

48 


GRAINS  AND   GRAIN  FOODS 


49 


Keeping  Flour  and  Bread.  —  Flour  and  meal  should 
be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  since  bacteria,  called  mold, 
develop  in  that  which  is  moist.  After  bread  has  been 
baked,  it  should  be  aired,  and  then  placed  in  a  tin  box 


First  rising  of  bread  dough ;  taking  the 
temperature  of  the  water. 


Kneading  bread. 


or  earthen  jar.     Such  dishes  help  to  keep  bread  moist, 
and  to  prevent  mold  from  spoiling  it. 

Digestion  of  Flour  Foods.  —  The  following  are  some 
good  facts  to  remember  about  our  daily  bread.  That 
which  is  a  day  or  more  old  is  more  readily  digestible 
than  newly  baked  bread.  Well-done  bread  is  more 
easily  digested  than  that  which  is  soggy.  Toast  is 
the  form  of  bread  that  is  the  most  readily  digested. 


50  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE   OF  THE  BODY 

For  this  reason  it  is  often  fed  to  invalids.  Crackers  are 
a  wholesome  form  of  flour  food.  One  good  thing  about 
both  toast  and  crackers  is  that  neither  can  be  readily 
swallowed  until  fairly  well  chewed. 

Biscuits,  muffins,  dumplings,  and  the  various  forms 
of  hot  bread  are  not  readily  digested,  because  their 
starch  has  not  been  thoroughly  cooked.  Persons  with 
weak  digestion  should  eat  them  but  rarely,  if  at  all. 

Pancakes,  doughnuts,  pies,  and  cakes  are  all  foods 
that  we  should  eat  in  but  small  amounts.  Often  their 
starch  has  not  been  long  enough  cooked  to  be  readily 
digestible.  Then,  too,  being  soft  in  texture,  they  are 
likely  to  be  swallowed  before  they  are  well  chewed. 
Since  all  grain  foods  contain  much  starch,  they  need  to 
be  well  chewed.  This  is  especially  true  of  such  rich 
foods  as  pie  and  cake. 

All  girls  should  learn  to  make  good  bread.  With  a 
patent  bread  mixer  to  use  in  kneading  the  dough,  this 
can  be  done  more  quickly  and  with  less  bother  than  it 
formerly  could.  Home-made  bread  should  be  cleaner 
and  more  wholesome  than  that  which  is  bought  at  the 
store.  It  also  costs  less. 

Breakfast  Foods.  —  Many  breakfast  foods  are  made 
from  grain.  Usually  they  are  wholesome  and  readily 
digested,  because  they  are  thoroughly  cooked.  Those 
that  are  dry  enough  to  compel  thorough  chewing  are 
especially  good. 


GRAINS  AND  GRAIN  FOODS  51 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  Flour,   corn  meal,   oatmeal,  and  rice  are  among  the 
principal  grain  foods.     All  are  rich  in  starch,  and  have  some 
proteid  and  valuable  mineral  salts,  but  little  fat. 

2.  Foods  made  from  flour  and  meal  need  especially  thor- 
ough chewing  because  they  contain  so  much  starch. 

3.  Newly  baked  bread  is  not  so  readily  digested  as  bread 
a  day  or  more  old.     Toast  is  the  most  readily  digested  form 
of  bread. 

4.  Children  often  spoil  their  good  health  and  good  looks 
by  eating  too  much  cake,  pie,  and  similar  foods. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  About  what  part  of  wheat  is  starch?  proteid? 

2.  What  other  food  components  in  wheat? 

3.  Compare  corn  with  wheat;  oatmeal  with  wheat. 

4.  What  is  said  of  rice  as  food? 

5.  Tell  the  best  way  to  keep  flour  or  meal. 

6.  Why  are  biscuits,  muffins,  etc.,  not  so  readily  digested 
as  bread? 

7.  What  is  said  of  pancakes,  doughnuts,  pies,  and  cakes? 

8.  Why  is  home-made  bread  better  than  that  which  is 
bought  at  the  store? 

9.  What  is  said  of  " breakfast  foods"  ? 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    STORY    OF    FOOD   IN    BODY    BUILDING 

OTHER   VEGETABLE    FOODS 

Peas  and  Beans.  —  Of  the  vegetables  (veg'e-ta-blz) 
commonly  used  peas  and  beans  have  the  greatest  food 
value.  When  ripened  and  dried,  about  three-fifths 
of  each  is  starch  and  one-fifth  proteid.  About  one- 
eighth  is  water.  Both  also  contain  valuable  mineral 
salts  and  a  very  small  amount  of  fat.  When  green, 
peas  and  beans  have  not  nearly  so  large  a  supply  of 
the  useful  food  elements,  and  when  canned,  they  have 
still  less. 

Unfortunately  the  starch  and  proteid  of  peas  and 
beans  are  surrounded  by  a  tough  fiber  which  is  difficult 
to  digest.  For  this  reason,  people  with  poor  digestion 
should  eat  them  but  very  little,  and  some  should  avoid 
them  altogether.  It  is  also  well  for  any  one  who  is  ill 
not  to  eat  them. 

Ripened  and  dried  peas  and  beans  should  be  allowed 
to  soak  in  water  several  hours  before  they  are  cooked. 
They  should  also  be  cooked  for  a  long  time.  After 
such  preparation,  much  of  the  indigestible  part  can  be 

52 


OTHER    VEGETABLE  FOODS  53 

removed  by  straining.  From  what  is  left,  a  broth 
can  be  made  that  is  nutritious  and  not  difficult  to 
digest. 

Potatoes.  —  Perhaps  no  vegetable  is  more  often 
served  at  meals  than  the  potato,  although  it  is  about 
three-fourths  water.  Of  the  remaining  one-fourth,  the 
greater  part  is  starch.  It  also  has  valuable  mineral 
salts  and  a  very  small  part  of  fat,  but  little  or  none  of 
the  proteid  which  helps  to  make  peas  and  beans  so 
rich  in  food  value. 

Some  of  the  food  elements  are  lost  in  cooking  pota- 
toes, if  they  are  not  put  at  once  in  a  very  hot  place. 
For  this  reason,  the  oven  should  be  very  hot  for  baking 
them,  and  they  should  be  placed  in  boiling  water  if 
they  are  to  be  boiled.  They  should  not  be  soaked  in 
water  before  cooking.  Baked  potatoes  are  the  most 
readily  digested.  Potatoes  that  are  moist  and  soggy 
after  being  cooked  are  not  so  readily  digested  as  those 
that  are  dry  and  mealy. 

Other  Vegetables.  —  Other  garden  vegetables  are 
valuable  chiefly  for  their  mineral  salts.  Often  they  are 
composed  of  eight  or  nine  tenths  water,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  made  up  of  mineral  salts  and  very  small 
parts  of  starch,  proteid,  and  fat.  Beets  are  well  sup- 
plied with  sugar. 

All  green  vegetables  are  thought  to  be  good  for  the 
blood.  Spinach  (spin'aj),  dandelions,  and  >rhubarb 


54 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


are  also  prized  for  their  good  effect  on  the  liver.  Cel- 
ery, onions,  and  carrots,  asparagus  (as-par'a-gus), 
and  squash  are  all  especially  good  vegetables.  Indeed, 
many  children  who  eat  no  vegetables  but  potatoes 
would  be  both  healthier  and  handsomer  if  they  would 
eat  freely  of  some  of  the  others  that  have  been  men- 
tioned. 


As/? 


Showing  composition  of  potato,  carrot,  and  cabbage.  Ash  represents  the 
mineral  salts. 

Nuts.  —  Nuts  are  composed  of  from  one-fourth  to 
three-fifths  fat.  They  also  have  about  as  much  pro- 
teid  as  peas  and  beans,  besides  mineral  salts.  Some 
nuts  are  well  supplied  with  starch  and  sugar.  Like 
peas  and  beans,  nuts  are  difficult  to  digest.  They 
should  always  be  thoroughly  chewed.  Almonds,  pea- 
nuts, and  English  walnuts  are  among  the  richest  in 
food  value.  Chestnuts,  hickory  nuts,  and  others  com- 


OTHER    VEGETABLE  FOODS 


55 


monly  found  in  this  country  are  also  well  supplied 
with  the  useful  food  elements. 

Fruit.  —  Fruit  is  made  up  mostly  of  water  and  a  small 
part  of  sugar.     On  this  account  it  has  little  building  or 


Nutting. 

fuel  value,  but  it  is  highly  prized  as  food  because  of  its 
delicious  taste  and  the  good  effect  of  its  mineral  salts 
upon  the  digestive  organs.  Both  unripe  and  decayed 
fruits  are  harmful  and  should  not  be  eaten.  Canned 
fruits  are  pleasant  to  the  taste,  and  may  digest  more 


56  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

easily  than  fresh  fruit,  but  the  good  effect  of  the  min- 
ral  salts  is  often  lost  in  the  cooking. 

Invalids  can  often  digest  orange  juice  when  the  pulp 
might  not  agree  with  them.  Baked  apples  may  be 
good  food  for  those  who  cannot  digest  the  uncooked 
fruit.  Bananas  may  be  made  more  readily  digestible 
by  scraping  off  the  fibrous  part  just  under  the  skin. 

POINTS   FOR   SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  Peas  and  beans  are  well  supplied  with  both  starch  and 
proteid.     They  are  difficult  to  digest  and  should  not    be 
eaten  by  invalids. 

2.  Potatoes  are  well  supplied  with  starch  and  mineral 
salts,  but  have  little  of  the  other  food  elements.      They 
should  be  eaten  with  butter  or  gravy  to  furnish  the  fat,  and 
lean  meat  or  eggs  to  supply  the  needed  proteid. 

3.  Nuts  are  well  supplied  with  fat,  proteid,  and  the  other 
food   elements.     They   should  be  thoroughly  chewed  and 
eaten  in  small  amounts    since  much  of  the  fiber  is  indi- 
gestible. 

4.  Fruits,  as  well  as  many  garden  vegetables,  are  com- 
posed largely  of  water,  but  are  very  valuable  foods  because 
of  the  good  effect  of  their  mineral  salts  upon  digestion. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  causes  peas  and  beans  to  be  difficult  to  digest? 

2.  Tell  what  is  said  of  the  food  value  of  peas  and  beans. 

3.  Describe  how  a  readily  digestible  broth  can  be  pre- 
pared from  peas  and  beans. 

4.  What  is  the  chief  food  element  in  potatoes? 

5.  Tell  the  best  way  to  bake  potatoes;  to  boil  potatoes. 


OTHER    VEGETABLE  FOODS  57 

6.  Which  digest  the  more  easily,  baked  or  boiled  potatoes? 
mealy  or  soggy  potatoes? 

7.  Name  some  vegetables  that  are  said  to  have  a  good 
effect  upon  the  blood. 

8.  Mention  some  vegetables  that  stimulate  the  liver. 

9.  Tell  some  of  the  food  elements  found  in  nuts. 

10.  Name  some  nuts  that  are  the  richest  in  food  value. 

11.  Why  is  fruit  highly  prized  as  food? 

12.  What  kind  of  fruit  is  quite  sure  to  be  harmful? 

13.  Tell  what  is  said  of  canned  fruits. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE    STORY    OF    FOOD    IN   BODY   BUILDING 

DRINKS 

Cocoa  and  Chocolate.  —  Besides  water  and  milk 
the  liquids  most  commonly  drunk  at  meals  are  coffee, 
tea,  cocoa,  and  chocolate.  Of  these  only  the  latter 
two  have  any  real  food  value.  They  are  both  made 

from  cocoa  seeds 
which  are  rich  in 
fat,  and  are  also 
well  supplied  with 
proteid  and 
starch.  Cocoa 
contains  less  fat 
than  chocolate, 
and  is  more  read- 
ily digested. 

Cocoa  plant.  Coffee  and  Tea 

—  From  the  pleasing  aroma  of  coffee  and  tea,  many 
think  them  rich  in  the  useful  food  elements.  This  is 
not  true.  Both  are  stimulants,  but  furnish  no  build- 
ing or  fuel  materials  except  the  milk  and  sugar  that 

58 


DRINKS  59 

may  be  used  for  flavoring.  A  stimulant  is  something 
that  increases  the  activity  of  the  brain,  heart,  or  some 
other  organ  for  a  time.  Many  medicines  are  stimu- 
lants. As  a  rule,  it  is  unsafe  to  take  any  stimulant  un- 
less advised  to  do  so  by  a  doctor. 

Coffee  and  Bread  a  Poor  Breakfast.  -  -  Toast  and  milk 
only,  or  toast  and  cocoa,  might  be  eaten  for  breakfast, 
and  one  would  be  fairly  well  strengthened  for  a  morn- 
ing's work.  But  toast  and  coffee,  or  toast  and  tea,  fur- 
nish altogether  too  little  strength  for  long-continued 
work  or  play.  School  physicians  often  find  that  the 
usual  breakfast  of  pale,  weak,  nervous  children  is  toast 
or  bread  and  coffee.  A  few  breakfasts  of  the  right  sort 
quickly  start  such  children  on  the  road  to  health  and 
strength.  We  should  care  too  much  for  our  bodies  to 
allow  them  to  start  a  morning's  work  so  poorly  fur- 
nished with  food  that  gives  strength. 

Children  and  Tea  or  Coffee. — All  physicians  agree 
that  children  should  not  drink  either  tea  or  coffee.  No 
little  folk  who  want  to  be  as  strong  and  rosy-cheeked 
as  they  can  will  be  so  foolish  as  to  use  either  of  these 
stimulants.  Besides  water,  the  very  best  drink  for 
them  is  milk,  and  the  next  best  is  cocoa.  They  are 
the  best,  too,  not  only  because  they  supply  the  food 
elements  the  body  needs,  but  also  because  they  taste 
exactly  as  well  or  better  when  we  have  got  into  the 
habit  of  using  them. 


60  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

Alcoholic  Drinks  not  Food.  —  Beer,  wine,  brandy, 
whisky,  and  other  alcoholic  drinks  are  also  stimulants 
and  not  food.  Some  people  think  these  liquors  help 
them  to  work  better.  Years  ago  Benjamin  Franklin 
proved  to  some  London  printers  that  water  drinkers 
work  faster  and  lift  more  than  beer  drinkers  can. 
To-day  athletic  teams  in  this  country  are  not  allowed 
to  use  alcoholic  drinks  during  their  training  season. 
Why  not?  Because  years  of  experience  have  proved 
that  the  athletes  who  do  without  such  drinks  can  be 
depended  upon  for  the  best  work. 

Alcohol  and  Warmth. — Some  people  imagine  that 
alcoholic  drinks  help  to  make  them  warm.  They  do 
cause  more  blood  to  come  to  the  surface  of  the  body, 
and  so  they  seem  to  increase  one's  warmth.  In  fact, 
however,  heat  radiates  from  the  surface  of  the  body 
more  quickly  than  it  otherwise  would,  and  so  in  the 
end  they  are  colder.  Explorers  have  found  that  they 
can  endure  the  intense  cold  of  the  polar  regions  far 
better  without  alcoholic  drinks.  Surely  no  testimony 
on  this  question  could  be  stronger  than  theirs.  Hot 
milk,  cocoa,  hot  lemonade,  and  good  nourishing  food 
are  the  best  heat  producers. 

Alcohol  and  Health.  —  There  are  some  who  think 
that  alcoholic  drinks  aid  in  the  digestion  of  other  foods. 
On  the  contrary,  there  is  good  proof  that  they  retard 
digestion.  And  that  is  not  their  only  bad  effect,  for 


DRINKS 


61 


62  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

the  heart,  arteries,  liver,  and  kidneys  are  all  diseased 
in  time  through  their  use.  Physicians  have  also  found 
out  another  important  fact.  Persons  who  do  not  use 
such  drinks  are  much  more  likely  to  get  well  from  seri- 
ous diseases  than  those  who  use  them.  They  are  also 
much  more  likely  to  recover  from  surgical  operations. 

Alcohol  and  the  Brain.  -  -  The  worst  result  from  such 
drinks,  however,  is  that  they  so  affect  a  person's  brain 
that  he  loses  control  both  of  his  muscles  and  his  will. 
Because  of  the  lost  control  of  his  muscles,  he  staggers. 
On  account  of  the  lost  will  power,  he  may  be  brutal  or 
commit  crime. 

Alcohol  and  the  Appetite.  —  Of  course  no  one  expects 

to  become  a  drunkard  at  the  time  the  habit  of  using 

liquor  is  started.     If  a  person  could  look  into  the  future 

and  see  himself  like  the  staggering  objects  he  looks 

upon  with  pity  or  contempt,  nothing  could  hire  him 

to  start.     "  They  must   have   been  very  weak/7  he 

thinks.     "  I  am  too  strong  ever  to  become  like  that." 

/But  in  this  lies  the  most  dread  danger  of  alcohol.     It 

/  so  affects  the  tissues  of  the  body  as  to  create  an  irresist- 

\   ible  (ir7  re-zist'i-bl)  appetite  for  itself.     Not  only  the 

\veak  and  ignorant,  but  also  many  of  the  strongest  and 

best  educated  have  become  its  victims. 

Alcohol  and  Usefulness. --The  records  of  prisons 
show  that  drink  was  the  beginning  of  the  disgrace 
of  most  of  their  inmates.  Insane  asylums  and  homes 


DRINKS  63 

for  deserted  children  record  the  same  sad  story.  The 
charity  societies  of  cities  number  the  wives  and  chil- 
dren of  drunkards  among  the  most  numerous  of  their 
charges. 

A  census  of  the  unemployed  in  any  city  would  show 
how  much  the  strong  drink  habit  has  to  do  with  the 
loss  of  positions.  Workmen  need  to  be  on  time  and 
in  the  places  where  they  are  wanted  each  day.  They 
have  to  be  trustworthy,  and  both  reliable  and  clear- 
headed in  case  of  an  emergency  (e-mer'  jen-sy). 
Drinking,  carousing,  and  the  loss  of  sleep  that  attend 
them,  prevent  one  from  being  his  best  in  any  of  these 
respects.  Indeed,  this  is  so  generally  recognized  that 
in  many  places  requiring  special  honesty  and  ability, 
only  men  who  do  not  use  alcoholic  drinks  are  em- 
ployed. 

Fortunately  the  sentiment  against  using  intoxicating 
drinks  is  rapidly  growing.  No  doubt  the  terrible  loss 
of  property  and  manhood  resulting  from  the  habit  is 
being  more  plainly  understood.  The  pathos  of  sad- 
faced  mothers  and  pinched,  poverty-stricken  children 
is  also  having  its  effect.  The  chief  reason,  however, 
is  the  increasing  desire  to  achieve  the  greatest  possible 
joy  and  usefulness  in  life.  The  best  possible  health  of 
body  and  mind  is  essential  to  the  greatest  happiness 
and  highest  service.  Thoughtful  people  are  realizing 
more  strongly  every  day  that  burdening  the  body  with 


64  THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

liquors  that  have  no  food  value  is,  to  say  the  least,  a 
serious  hindrance  and  handicap.  The  younger  we  are 
when  strongly  impressed  with  this  great  truth,  the 
happier  and  more  useful  we  shall  be. 

History  tells  how  nobly  our  country  aided  Cuba 
when  Spain  was  causing  such  ruin  and  suffering  in  that 
beautiful  island.  How  proud  even  very  young  boys 
would  be  to  fight  in  such  a  cause!  Alcoholic  drinks 
produce  far  more  loss  of  property  and  suffering  in  our 
country  every  year  than  Spain  caused  in  Cuba.  No 
boy  or  girl  is  too  young  to  battle  against  this  greatest 
foe  of  home  and  country.  The  best  way  to  be  good 
fighters  in  this  splendid  cause  is  never  to  use  intoxicat- 
ing drinks  ourselves.  The  next  best  is  to  do  what  we 
can  to  discourage  their  use  by  others. 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  Coffee  and  tea  are  simply  stimulants  and  not  food. 
Children  should  not  drink  either,  since  they  cause  nervous- 
ness and  other  weakness. 

2.  A  breakfast  of  coffee  or  tea  and  toast  or  bread  does 
not  furnish  enough  strength  for  a  morning's  work.     Such 
breakfasts  are  the  cause  of  much  ill  health. 

3.  Cocoa  and  chocolate  are  both  rich  in  the  useful  food 
elements.     Cocoa  is  more  readily  digested  than  chocolate. 

4.  Alcoholic  drinks  are  simply  stimulants  and  not  food. 
They  cause  drunkenness;  create  an  appetite  for  themselves; 
and  lead  to  crime,  disgrace,  poverty,  and  unhappiness. 

5.  Alcoholic  drinks  do  not  help  people  to  work  better, 
nor  do  they  aid  in  warming  any  one  who  is  cold.     They  retard 


DRINKS  65 

digestion,  and  in  time  cause  serious  diseases  of  the  heart, 
arteries,  liver,  kidneys,  and  other  organs. 

6.  The  use  of  liquor  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of  the  loss 
of  work.  In  many  positions  of  trust  no  one  who  uses 
intoxicating  drinks  can  be  employed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  why  cocoa  and  chocolate  are  better  drinks  than 
coffee  and  tea. 

2.  What  is  a  stimulant?     Only  when,  as  a  rule,  should 
stimulants  be  taken? 

3.  Explain  why  coffee  and  toast  or  bread,  without  other 
food,  make  a  poor  breakfast. 

4.  Besides  water,  what  are  the  two  best  drinks  for  chil- 
dren? 

5.  Why  are  athletic  teams  not  allowed  to  use  alcoholic 
drinks  during  their  training  season? 

6.  Give  two  good  reasons  to  prove  that  alcoholic  drinks 
do  not  aid  in  making  any  one  who  is  cold,  warmer. 

7.  What    effect    have    alcoholic    drinks    on   digestion? 
What  organs  of  the  body  do  they  injure? 

8.  Tell  the  cause  of  drunkenness  and  its  effects. 

9.  Tell  why  it  is  unsafe  to  begin  the  liquor-drinking 
habit. 

10.  What  do   the   records  of   prisons,  orphans'  homes, 
insane  asylums,  and  charity  societies  show? 

11.  Why  does  the  strong  drink  habit  cause  the  loss  of 
work? 

12.  What   is   causing   the   rapid   growth   in   sentiment 
against  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks? 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE    CHIEF    MISTAKES    IN    THE    CHOICE    OF    FOODS 

Candy.  —  The  chief  mistake  many  children  make,  as 
far  as  food  is  concerned,  is  in  eating  too  much  candy. 
It  is  sold  so  cheap  and  is  so  temptingly  displayed  in 
store  windows.  Then,  too,  it  is  the  present  that  visitors, 
and  even  members  of  the  family,  most  commonly  give, 
since  children  are  known  to  be  so  fond  of  it. 

Of  course  no  visitor  or  relative  would  thinkingly 
injure  a  child's  health.  Few  children  would  willingly 
spend  pennies  for  candy,  if  they  knew  that  they  were 
thus  helping  to  make  themselves  less  fond  of  play  and 
study,  and  less  able  to  do  their  best  at  anything.  The 
thought  that  they  were  aiding  in  bringing  about  head- 
aches and  other  discomfort,  or  even  that  they  were 
helping  to  make  both  their  teeth  and  complexion  less 
beautiful,  would  be  enough  to  prompt  most  children 
to  better  sense. 

The  great  trouble  is  that  neither  children  nor  their 
elders  stop  to  consider  these  facts.  Even  if  others 
forget,  let  us  remember,  then,  that  while  a  little  sweet 
for  dessert  at  meals  is  good  food,  eating  candy  between 

66 


THE  CHIEF  MISTAKES  IN   THE  CHOICE  OF  FOODS      67 

meals,  or  eating  much  candy  at  any  time,  is  one  of  the 
surest  ways  to  lose  health  and  good  looks.  Think  of 
trading  the  satisfaction  of  being  and  looking  and  doing 
our  best,  all  the  time,  for  the  few  moments'  pleasure 
that  is  got  from  eating  sweets  !  Surely  few  will  know- 
ingly be  so  foolish. 

Breakfast.  —  The  bad  practice  of  eating  only  toast 
or  bread  and  coffee  for  breakfast  has  already  been 
spoken  of.  A  breakfast  of  pancakes,  butter,  and  sirup 
or  sugar  is  also  a  poor  one.  The  pancakes,  as  we  have 
learned,  are  not  readily  digested.  Then  such  a  break- 
fast furnishes  too  much  sugar  and  too  little  proteid. 
Eggs  and  toast  or  bread  and  a  glass  of  milk,  with  some 
breakfast  food,  fruit,  and  a  cup  of  cocoa  to  satisfy 
the  craving  for  sweet,  make  the  best  breakfast. 

Luncheon. — Children  often  take  to  school  a  luncheon 
of  bread  and  butter  with  jam  or  jelly,  pickles,  cake,  and 
a  bottle  of  cold  coffee.  Egg,  lettuce,  or  meat  sand- 
wiches for  the  hearty  part  of  the  meal,  fruit  and  a  little 
candy,  nuts,  or  cake  for  the  dessert,  with  milk  in  place 
of  the  coffee,  will  please  the  taste,  and  furnish  materials 
to  develop  both  strength  and  beauty  of  the  body.  If  one 
is  at  a  school  where  a  cup  of  broth  can  be  bought,  it  is 
an  addition  well  worth  while.  For  luncheon  or  supper 
at  home,  hot  soup,  followed  by  a  salad  with  bread  and 
butter,  and  fruit,  nuts,  and  cocoa  for  dessert,  make  a 
meal  that  is  delicious  and  strength-giving  as  well. 


68 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


Salads.  —  Much  can  be  said  in  praise  of  the  simple 
salads.  A  most  delicious  one  is  made  of  lettuce,  celery, 
fruit,  and  nuts,  with  olive  oil  or  cream  dressing.  Salad 
of  lettuce  and  eggs  alone  with  dressing  is  both  nutri- 
tious and  much  relished,  and  those  of  potato  and  va- 
rious vegetables  are  also  well  liked.  All  are  inexpen- 


Children  lunching. 

sive,  and  may  well  be  used  in  place  of  meat  at  luncheon 
or  supper.  Baked  potatoes  and  macaroni  with  cheese 
are  also  an  excellent  substitute  for  meat  at  these 
meals. 

Foods    to    Prevent    Constipation.  —  Olive    oil,    too, 
deserves  a  regular  place  at  meals.     Not  only  is  it  a 


THE  CHIEF  MISTAKES  IN  THE  CHOICE  OF  FOODS      69 

good  fuel  food,  but  it  is  also  an  excellent  aid  in  keep- 
ing the  bowels  from  becoming  constipated.  Plenty  of 
fresh  fruit,  stewed  prunes,  and  such  vegetables  as  spin- 
ach and  onions  will  also  help  in  keeping  the  bowels 
in  a  healthful  state.  Graham  and  whole  wheat  bread 
are  also  excellent  aids  to  the  same  end. 

POINTS  FOR  SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  It  is  not  alone  the  taste  of  food,  but  its  value  to  our 
bodies,  that  should  be  considered  in  preparing  meals. 

2.  It  is  not  the  amount  of  food  that  we  eat,  but  what  we 
digest,  that  really  counts  for  warmth  and  strength  to  our 
bodies. 

3.  There  are  plenty  of  simple  foods  that  are  rich  in  body- 
building and  fuel  materials,  and  at  the  same  time  readily 
made  use  of  by  our  digestive  organs. 

4.  As  a  rule,  fried  foods  are  difficult  to  digest. 

5.  By  using  a  little  judgment  in   our  choice  of  foods, 
a  free  movement  of  the  bowels  can  be  had  daily  without  the 
use  of  medicines.     This  will  count  much  toward  keeping  well 
and  strong. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  children  often  help  to  make  themselves  less 
fond  of  play  and  study  and  less  able  to  do  their  best  at  any- 
thing?^ 

2.  Tell  one  of  the  surest  ways  to  lose  health  and  good 
looks. 

3.  Why  do  pancakes,  butter,  and   sirup  make  a  poor 
breakfast? 

4.  Tell   some  foods  which  furnish  a  breakfast  that  will 
both  nourish  the  body  well,  and  satisfy  the  craving  for  sweet. 


70  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

5.  Mention   some   foods   that  make   a   poor   luncheon; 
some  that  make  an  appetizing  and  nutritious  luncheon. 

6.  Tell  what  is  said  of  the  food  value  of  salads. 

7.  Give  two  important  facts  about  the  food  value  of 
olive  oil. 

8.  Mention  several  foods  that  aid  in  keeping  the  bowels 
from  becoming  constipated. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE    STORY    OF    AIR    IN   BODY    BUILDING 

THE     NEED     FOR    PURE     AIR 

Air  and  Food  compared.  —  From  babyhood  we  have 
heard  it  said,  "  You  must  eat  to  be  strong."  We 
can  plainly  see,  smell,  and  taste  food,  and,  as  a  rule, 
can  judge  whether  it  is  fit  for  use.  Our  meals  have 
to  be  prepared,  and  we  must  make  some  effort  in  eat- 
ing them.  Naturally  (nat'u-ral-y),  then,  the  fact 
that  food  is  very  necessary  to  our  bodies  is  well 
understood. 

Air  is  breathed  in  and  out  of  our  lungs  several  times 
a  minute.  We  cannot  handle  it  as  we  can  food,  nor 
do  our  senses  so  readily  tell  whether  it  is  fit  for  use. 
It  requires  neither  cooking  nor  serving.  The  breath- 
ing muscles  work  on  and  on,  day  and  night,  without 
any  effort  of  the  will.  For  these  reasons  many  think 
little  or  nothing  about  the  air  they  breathe. 

Value  of  Air.  —  Yet  it  is  not  hard  to  understand  the 
great  value  of  pure  air  to  the  body.  Why  is  drowning 
not  possible  while  a  person's  nose  is  above  water? 
Simply  because  he  can  breathe.  The  air  supply  is 

71 


72  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

cut  off  when  the  nostrils  go  under  water,  and  life  is 
soon  ended,  if  they  are  kept  there.  Close  the  mouth 
tightly,  and  at  the  same  time  press  the  nostrils  firmly 
enough  together  to  stop  the  current  of  air.  Why  must 
one  of  these  air  passages  soon  be  opened?  Because 
the  body  can  be  comfortable  only  a  few  seconds  with- 
out a  fresh  supply  of  air. 

Now  if  we  had  to  eat  food  every  few  seconds  of  the 
day,  we  should  certainly  be  careful  to  use  that  which 
would  be  best  for  our  bodies.  Very  likely  we  should 
also  take  the  greatest  pains  to  have  it  just  as  clean  and 
pure  as  possible.  We  should  surely  be  just  as  careful 
about  the  air  we  breathe.  Without  doubt  some  good 
sense  in  this  respect  may  add  much  to  the  beauty  and 
usefulness  of  our  bodies,  as  well  as  to  our  health  and 
happiness. 

Pure  Air.  —  All  air  looks  about  the  same  to  us. 
Yet,  as  to  fitness  for  use  in  our  bodies,  it  differs  greatly. 
Our  bodies  need  pure  air.  Besides  some  watery  vapor, 
pure  air  is  composed  of  the  three  gases,  nitrogen,  oxy- 
gen, and  carbon  dioxide  (kar'bon  di-ox'id)  which  is 
often  called  carbonic  acid  gas. 

A  little  less  than  four-fifths  of  pure  air  is  nitrogen. 
About  one-fifth  is  oxygen.  Only  about  one  part  to 
every  twenty-five  hundred  parts  of  air  is  carbon  dioxide. 
The  two  gases  that  we  need  most  to  learn  about  are 
oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide. 


PURE  AIR  73 

Oxygen.  —  Oxygen  is  the  element  of  air  that  unites 
with  the  carbon  in  other  substances  to  cause  burning  or 
combustion  (kom-bus'chun) .  Why  does  opening  the 
lower  draft  of  a  stove  or  furnace  make  the  fire  burn  more 
briskly?  Because  more  oxygen  reaches  the  fire  pot 
to  unite  with  the  carbon  of  the  coal  or  wood.  If  the 
drafts  are  kept  closed,  or  if  the  ashes  prevent  oxygen 
from  reaching  the  fuel,  the  fire  soon  goes  out. 

Oxygen  is  also  constantly  uniting  with  the  carbon 
of  metal  and  wood  that  are  exposed  to  air.  This 
union,  however,  is  slow  and  does  not  cause  flame  as  it 
does  in  the  stove  or  the  furnace.  It  simply  makes  the 
metal  rust  or  the  wood  decay.  The  oxygen  of  the 
atmosphere  is  diluted  or  weakened  by  the  presence  of 
so  much  nitrogen.  If  it  were  not,  oxygen  would  unite 
with  carbon  too  briskly,  and  cause  fires  where  they  were 
not  wanted. 

Of  what  benefit  to  us  is  the  oxygen  of  the  air  breathed 
into  our  lungs?  It  unites  with  the  carbon  in  the  tissues 
of  our  bodies,  to  produce  the  heat  that  keeps  us  warm 
and  the  energy  that  gives  us  the  power  of  motion. 
This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  we  cannot  get  along 
without  air  a  single  moment. 

Carbon  Dioxide.  — When  oxygen  unites  with  carbon 
in  a  stove  or  furnace,  besides  heat  there  is  produced 
a  disagreeable  gas  which  we  are  careful  to  have  pass  up 
the  chimney.  The  union  of  oxygen  and  the  tissues  of 


74  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE 

our  bodies,  besides  causing  heat,  also  produces  a  gas 
called  carbon  dioxide. 

We  have  already  learned  that  pure  air  contains  about 
one  part  of  carbon  dioxide  to  every  twenty-five  hundred 
parts  of  air.  Two  parts  of  this  gas  to  twenty-five  hun- 
dred parts  pf  air  is  the  most  that  it  is  safe  to  have  in  any 
air  we  breathe.  Without  doubt  five  and  one-half 
parts  of  carbon  dioxide  to  twenty-five  hundred  parts  of 
air  is  dangerous  to  breathe.  By  thinking  how  quickly 
five  can  be  counted,  and  how  long  it  would  take  to 
count  twenty-five  hundred,  one  can  readily  understand 
how  very  small  an  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  will  make 
the  air  of  a  room  injurious  to  breathe. 

The  Air  Breathed  Out.  -  -  The  blood  carries  oxygen 
from  our  lungs  to  every  part  of  the  body.  It  also  brings 
back  carbon  dioxide  from  the  tissues  to  the  lungs,  from 
whence  it  is  carried  in  the  air  breathed  out.  Indeed, 
the  air  breathed  out  contains  one-fifth  less  oxygen,  one 
hundred  times  more  carbon  dioxide,  and  twice  as  much 
watery  vapor  as  the  air  breathed  in.  Along  with  this 
watery  vapor,  many  particles  of  dead  tissue  also  come. 
These  have  an  offensive  smell  and  may  contain  disease 
germs. 

An  exchange  of  carbon  dioxide,  watery  vapor,  and 
fetid  matter  for  oxygen  takes  place  every  time  human 
beings  or  other  animals  breathe.  Oil  lamps,  gas  jets, 
candles,  in  fact,  any  artificial  lights  in  common  use  but 


PURE  AIR  75 

electric  lights,  consume  much  oxygen  and  produce  car- 
bon dioxide.  So  one  can  readily  see  that  the  air  of  any 
room  may  become  unfit  for  breathing,  unless  pains  are 
taken  to  prevent  it.  Plow  this  may  be  done,  we  shall 
see  in  the  next  chapter. 

POINTS  FOR  SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  We  can  get  along  but  a  few  seconds  without  air.     The 
purer  the  air,  the  better  it  is  for  our  bodies. 

2.  Besides  some  watery  vapor,  pure  air  is  composed  of 
about  four-fifths  nitrogen,  one-fifth  oxygen,  and  one  part 
carbon  dioxide  to  every  twenty-five  hundred  parts  of  air. 

3.  Oxygen  unites  with  the  tissues  of  our  bodies  to  produce 
heat  and  energy. 

4.  The  blood  takes  oxygen  from  the  air  breathed  into 
our  lungs,  and  carries  it  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

5.  Besides  causing  heat  and  energy,  the  combustion  of 
oxygen  and  the  tissues  of  the  body  produces  carbon  dioxide. 
The  blood  takes  this  gas  back  to  the  lungs  from  whence  it 
is  carried  in  the  air  breathed  out. 

6.  Two  parts  of  carbon  dioxide  in  twenty-five  hundred 
parts  of  air  is  the  most  that  it  is  safe  to  have  in  the  air  we 
breathe.  Five  and  one-half  parts  of  carbon  dioxide  to  twenty- 
five  hundred  parts  of  air  is  dangerous  to  breathe. 

7.  The  air  breathed  out  contains  one-fifth  less  oxygen, 
one  hundred  times  more  carbon  dioxide,  and  twice  as  much 
watery  vapor  as  the  air  breathed  in. 

8.  The  watery  vapor  of  the  air  breathed  out  from  the 
lungs  contains  particles  of  dead  tissue.     These  have  an  of- 
fensive smell,  and  may  contain  disease  germs. 

9.  All  artificial   lights   except  electric,  consume  oxygen 
and  give  out  carbon  dioxide. 


76  THE  BUILDING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  why  it  is  natural  to  think  of  food  as  necessary 
to  the  body. 

2.  Explain  why  many  think  little    about  the  air  they 
breathe. 

3.  Give  some  proofs  that  our  bodies  must  have   air 
every  moment. 

4.  Besides  watery  vapor,  what  three    gases  does  air 
contain? 

5.  Pure  air  contains  what  part  of  nitrogen?  of  oxygen? 
of  carbon  dioxide? 

6.  How  is  heat  produced  in  a  stove  or  furnace? 

7.  What  may  cause  a  fire  in  a  stove  or  furnace  to  go  out? 

8.  Tell  what  causes  rust  of  metals  and  decay  of  wood. 

9.  What  dilutes  oxygen?     What  would  be  the  effect  if 
it  were  not  diluted? 

10.  How  are  heat  and  energy  produced  in  our  bodies? 

11.  What  poisonous  gas  is  also  produced  by  the  com- 
bustion of  oxygen  and  carbon  in  our  bodies? 

12.  What  is  the  greatest  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  that 
it  is  safe  to  have  in  the  air  we  breathe? 

13.  What  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  is  it  dangerous  to  have 
in  the  air  that  we  breathe?       ' 

14.  What  carries  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to  the  body,  and 
brings  back  carbon  dioxide  to  the  lungs? 

15.  Tell  how  the  air  breathed  out  from  the  lungs  differs 
from  the  air  breathed  in. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE   STORY   OF   AIR   IN   BODY   BUILDING 

VENTILATION 

We  know  that  oxygen  is  being  constantly  used  up 
and  carbon  dioxide  produced  by  combustion  in  the 
world  about  us.  Every  time  human  beings  or  other 
animals  breathe,  oxygen  is  taken  from  the  air,  and 
carbon  dioxide  is  given  back.  It  is  dangerous  to 
breathe  air  that  contains  only  five  and  one-half  parts 
of  carbon  dioxide  to  twenty-five  hundred  parts  of  air. 
How  does  it  happen  that  the  air,  in  great  cities  at 
least,  does  not  become  unfit  for  our  use? 

In  the  first  place,  plants  and  trees  in  daytime  take 
in  carbon  dioxide  and  give  out  oxygen.  Secondly, 
when  air  is  warmed,  it  expands  and  becomes  lighter. 
Naturally,  then,  it  rises,  and  cooler  air  rushes  in  to  take 
its  place.  Out  of  doors  this  shifting  and  changing  of 
great  masses  of  warm  and  cool  air  are  constantly  taking 
place.  This,  together  with  the  vastness  of  the  atmos- 
phere, causes  out-of-door  air,  as  a  rule,  to  be  pure. 

It  is  air  inside  our  homes  and  other  buildings  in  which 
we  work  or  study,  that  we  must  take  pains  to  keep 

77 


78  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

pure.  In  warm  weather,  this  can  be  easily  done 
through  open  doors  and  windows.  In  our  bedrooms 
at  night,  open  windows  will  serve  this  useful  purpose 
in  any  season.  Keeping  a  room  or  building  supplied 
with  pure  air  is  called  ventilation. 

Ventilation  of  Large  Buildings.  — In  modern  school- 
houses  and  similar  buildings  each  room  has  an  opening 
through  which  pure  air  is  forced  in  cool  weather,  and 
another  through  which  foul  air  passes  out.  The  amount 
of  pure  air  forced  in  depends  upon  what  the  room  is 
used  for  and  the  number  of  persons  it  is  built  to  seat. 
As  a  rule,  about  forty  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  is 
the  amount  that  it  is  planned  to  furnish  for  each 
person.  When  the  fans  and  other  machinery  in  such 
buildings  work  perfectly,  the  air  supply  is  very  satis- 
factory. 

Furnaces.  —  In  homes,  the  air  supply  in  cold  weather 
often  comes  from  the  furnace.  It  passes  from  out  of 
doors,  or  from  the  cellar,  through  the  cold-air  box  into 
a  space  over  the  fire  pot  of  the  furnace.  Being  heated 
there,  it  expands  and  rises  through  the  registers  into 
the  rooms  above. 

The  cold-air  box  of  most  furnaces  is  so  built  that 
air  may  be  taken  either  from  outside  or  from  the  cellar. 
Of  course  air  from  out  of  doors  will  be  purer  than  air 
from  the  cellar.  Wherever  it  is  feasible,  we  should 
have  the  cold-air  box  of  our  furnace  supplied  from 


VENTILATION  79 

out  of  doors.  Then,  if  windows  in  the  occupied  rooms 
are  opened  enough  to  insure  a  good  circulation  of  air, 
we  can  be  well  satisfied  with  the  ventilation. 

Steam  and  Hot  Water  Heating.  —  Some  homes  are 
heated  by  hot  water  or  steam,  which  comes  from  the 
furnace  through  pipes  into  radiators  which  are  in  the 
various  rooms.  In  such  homes,  the  air  of  the  rooms 
is  heated  by  the  radiators.  No  pure  air  supply,  how- 
ever, is  coming  from  the  furnace.  On  this  account, 
special  pains  must  be  taken  to  ventilate  by  open  win- 
dows. Similar  care  must  also  be  taken  in  rooms  or 
homes  that  are  heated  by  stoves. 

Stoves  without  Pipes. — Every  stove  should  have  a 
pipe  to  carry  off  the  gas  that  is  always  produced  by 
combustion.  Gas  stoves  without  such  pipes  are  often 
sold.  In  rooms  where  such  stoves  are  used,  there 
should  be  an  excellent  circulation  of  pure  air.  Other- 
wise the  atmosphere  of  the  room  will  soon  become 
unfit  for  breathing.  It  is  far  better  to  spend  a  little 
more  money  and  buy  a  stove  having  a  pipe  to  carry  off 
the  injurious  gas. 

Fireplace.  —  A  room  heated  by  a  fireplace  is  likely 
to  be  well  ventilated.  The  air  which  is  being  heated 
by  the  fire  expands  and  passes  up  the  chimney,  the 
cooler  air  of  the  room  rushing  in  to  take  its  place.  Thus 
the  atmosphere  of  the  room  is  constantly  kept  in  circu- 
lation. 


80 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE   OF  THE  BODY 


Ventilating  by  Windows.  —  In  ventilating  by  win- 
dows alone,  it  is  well  to  have  an  opening  both  at  the 
top  and  at  the  bottom.  Then  the 
warm  air  will  pass  out  at  the  up- 
per opening,  and  cooler  air  will 
come  in  at  the  lower.  It  is  far 
better  to  have  several  windows 
open  in  this  way  than  to  have  one 
open  wide. 

A  device  like  the 
one  in  the  illustra- 
tion on  this  page  is 
excellent  for  ventila- 
tion  in  very  cold 
weather.  This  ad- 
mits air  between  the  upper  and  lower 
sashes,  thus  avoiding  drafts.  In  all 
ventilation,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
strong  drafts,  for  sitting  in  a  draft  often 
causes  a  cold.  The  aim  should  be  to 
have  a  free  circulation  of  air.  Usually 
this  can  be  done  without  causing  in- 
jurious drafts,  if  windows  and  transoms 

are  Wisely  adjusted.  Thermometer. 

Temperature  of  Living  Rooms.  —  Not  only  should 
the  air  of  occupied  rooms  be  kept  pure,  but  it  should 
also  not  be  allowed  to  become  too  hot  or  too  dry,  A 


Ventilating  in  cold 
weather,  keeping  the 
lower  sash  of  a  window 
raised  by  a  board. 


VENTILATION 


81 


temperature  of  from  65°  to  68°  is  the  best  for  any  room 
in  which  people  are  sitting,  and  it  should  not  be  allowed 
to  rise  above  70°.  If  it  does,  the  people  in  the  room 
are  likely  to  feel  dull  and  restless.  Headache  and  other 
unpleasant  feelings  also  often  result.  Then,  too,  one  is 
apt  to  catch  cold  more  easily  on  going  out  of  doors, 
because  the  air  is  so  much  cooler  than  that  of  the  room. 
Notice  the  thermometer  of  the  room  in  which  you 
are  sitting.  Tell 
how  many  de- 
grees its  mercury 
registers.  Take 
it  in  your  hand, 
and,  if  feasible, 
through  the  use 
of  heat  and  cold, 
make  it  register 
65°,  68°,  and  70° 
in  turn.  You 
will  be  interested 
to  see  how 
quickly  the  mer- 
cury Will  rise  and  Writing  the  daily  temperature  record. 

fall  to  show  the  change  in  heat. 

Temperature  Record.  —  Much  poor  work  and  bad 
conduct  in  school  have,  no  doubt,  been  caused  by  too 
warm  air.  In  every  schoolroom,  the  thermometer 


82  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

should  be  examined  at  least  once  an  hour,  and  the  tem- 
perature written  on  the  blackboard.  It  should  be  the 
duty  of  certain  pupils  to  attend  to  this  important 
record.  If  the  temperature  should  be  found  to 
be  above  68°,  the  atmosphere  should  be  promptly 
cooled.  Reasonably  cool,  pure  air  is  one  of  the 
greatest  aids  to  good  attention  and  to  successful 
school  work. 

Too  Dry  Air.  —  Air  that  is  too  dry  takes  up  moisture 
from  the  inside  of  the  mouth  and  nose,  thus  causing 
soreness  and  colds.  Every  furnace  has  a  storage  place 
for  water  which  should  be  filled  daily.  Even  when 
this  is  kept  well  filled,  the  air  which  passes  to  the  rooms 
above  will  often  be  too  dry.  If  a  small  basin  of  water 
is  kept  inside  the  registers  of  the  much-occupied  rooms, 
the  air  in  passing  will  usually  take  up  the  moisture  it 
should  have.  A  basin  of  water  should  also  be  used  to 
furnish  moisture  to  the  air  of  stove-heated  rooms. 
When  open  windows  are  used  for  ventilation,  there  is 
little  likelihood  of  too  dry  air. 

Chief  Aim  of  Ventilation.  —  The  chief  aim  of  ventila- 
tion is  to  provide  for  a  circulation  of  pure  air.  When 
we  are  to  be  for  some  time  in  a  room  with  several  other 
persons,  we  should  look  out  for  its  proper  ventilation 
just  as  quickly  as  we  should  look  for  a  seat.  In  fact, 
pure  air  to  breathe  is  far  more  important  than  a  com- 
fortable seat  in  which  to  sit.  Standing  a  very  long  time 


VENTILATION  83 

makes  one  very  tired,  of  course ;  but  breathing  impure 
air  sows  the  seeds  of  discomfort  and  disease. 

Unclean  Air.  —  Upon  coming  from  out  of  doors  into 
a  poorly  ventilated  room  that  has  been  occupied  for 
some  time  by  several  people,  we  at  once  notice  the  im- 
pure, ill-smelling  atmosphere.  Those  in  the  room  may 
not  have  noticed  the  foul  air  at  all,  for  their  noses  be- 
came used  to  it,  little  by  little.  A  newcomer,  how- 
ever, wants  to  open  doors  and  windows  at  once,  for  he 
cannot  endure  the  disgusting  air. 

Everybody  shrinks  at  the  thought  of  touching  or 
tasting  anything  foul,  decayed,  or  diseased.  Yet 
many  breathe  air  that  has  been  made  foul  by  waste 
particles  of  tissue  breathed  out  by  others,  without  even 
a  thought  of  its  unclean  condition. 

Any  one  who  happens  to  get  near  enough  to  smell 
the  offensive  breath  of  another,  will  quickly  withdraw. 
Yet  he  will  continue  to  breathe  unpurified  atmosphere 
containing  particles  that  help  make  breath  unpleasant, 
with  no  concern  whatever  as  to  the  foul  air  which  he  is 
taking  into  his  lungs. 

Often  persons  who  are  the  most  particular  about 
handling  unclean  things  they  can  see,  are  the  first  to 
complain  of  open  windows  on  account  of  their  fear  of 
drafts.  If  they  could  see  or  even  smell  the  unclean 
condition  of  the  air,  they  would  be  the  most  earnest  in 
asking  for  ventilation,  with  little  thought  of  drafts. 


84  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

Ventilating  for  Company.  —  It  will  often  happen  that 
too  many  people  will  be  seated  in  a  room  of  our  homes. 
Pains  should  be  taken  to  air  the  room  thoroughly  before 
the  guests  arrive.  Then  if  windows  are  properly  ar- 
ranged at  the  start,  a  good  circulation  can  usually  be 
had  without  injurious  drafts.  Sometimes  a  room  may 
be  too  crowded  for  such  an  arrangement  to  be  possible. 
In  such  cases  windows  should  be  opened  wide,  now 
and  then.  In  these  intervals  the  people  in  the  rooms 
can  keep  from  catching  cold  through  exercise  or  extra 
wraps. 

Ventilating  Facts  worth  Remembering.  —  The  follow- 
ing should  be  written  in  our  minds  and  never  forgotten. 
No  matter  how  clean,  pure,  and  pleasing  the  persons 
who  are  in  a  room  with  us  may  be,  each  one  is  using  up 
oxygen  and  breathing  out  carbon  dioxide  and  waste 
matter.  In  well-ventilated  rooms,  the  air  will  purify 
itself.  In  poorly  ventilated  rooms,  all  will  soon  be 
breathing  air  containing  waste  tissue  and  possibly  dis- 
ease germs  from  the  bodies  of  others,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  poisonous  carbon  dioxide. 

Here,  then,  is  a  matter  about  which  it  is  worth  while 
to  be  particular.  Let  a  good  circulation  of  air  be  the 
first  thing  to  look  out  for  in  any  room  in  which  we  are 
to  remain  for  a  long  time.  The  lack  of  good  ventila- 
tion should  be  at  all  times  a  good  excuse  for  leaving 
any  room  or  assembling  place.  Cleanliness,  as  well  as 


VENTILATION  85 

health,  will  certainly  furnish  the  best  of  reasons  for  so 
doing. 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  Out-of-door  air  is,  as  a  rule,  pure.     It  is  indoor  air 
that  we  should  take  pains  to  keep  fresh  and  pure. 

2.  The  windows  and  doors  of  occupied  rooms  should  be 
kept  open  in  warm  weather,  to  keep  the  air  as  nearly  as 
possible  like  the  out-of-door  atmosphere. 

3.  In  both  warm  and  cold  weather  our  sleeping  rooms 
should  be  ventilated  by  open  windows.     A  room  having  two 
or  more  windows  is  always  better  than  a  room  with  but  one 
window. 

4.  In  ventilating  by  windows,  it  is  well  to  have  an  open- 
ing both  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom.     Several  windows 
arranged  in  this  way  are  better  than  one  or  two  wide  open. 

5.  The  temperature  of  any  occupied  room,  except  a  sleep- 
ing room,  should  be  kept  at  from  65°  to  68°,  and  should  not 
be  allowed  to  rise  above  70°. 

6.  Every  stove  should  have  a  pipe  to  carry  off  the  poison- 
ous gases  produced  by  combustion. 

7.  We  cannot  see,  and  often  do  not  smell,  the  foul  air 
in  a  poorly  ventilated  room;    yet  it  may  be  as  unfit  for 
breathing  as  decayed  food   for  eating   or  sewer  water  for 
drinking. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  effect  does  heating  have  upon  air? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  purity  of  outside  air? 

3.  Define  ventilation. 

4.  How  may  a  room  be  well  ventilated  in  warm  weather? 

5.  How  should  our  bedrooms  be  ventilated  in  all  seasons? 

6.  In  cold  weather,  what  does  the  supply  of  pure  air 
in  homes  often  come  from? 

7.  What  is  said  of  cold-air  boxes? 


86  THE  BUILDING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

8.  How  does  a  fireplace  help  in  ventilating  a  room? 

9.  How  should  a  room  heated  by  stoves  be  ventilated 
in  cold  weather? 

10.  Why  should  all  stoves  used  in  a  home  or  office  have 
pipes  connected  with  the  chimney? 

11.  What  is  the  best  temperature  for  an  occupied  room? 

12.  What  is  the  highest  point  the  temperature  should 
be  allowed  to  reach? 

13.  Tell  how  a  temperature  record  should  be  kept  in  a 
schoolroom. 

14.  What  bad  effect  has  too  dry  air? 

15.  Tell  how  the  air  of  occupied  rooms  may  be  kept  from 
becoming  too  dry. 

16.  Tell  why  it  is  more  important  to  look  out  for  the  good 
ventilation  of  a  room  we  enter  than  to  look  for  a  seat. 

17.  Why  do  persons  who  have  been  for  some  time  in  a 
poorly  ventilated  room,  not  notice  the  foul  air? 

18.  How  will  the  air  of  such  a  room  affect  a  newcomer? 

19.  Tell  why  people  who  are  particular  about  unclean 
things  they  can  see,  are  often  not  particular  about  the  purity 
of  the  air  they  breathe. 

20.  How  may  drafts  often  be  avoided  in  ventilating  a 
room? 

21.  In  what  rooms  is  it  well  to  open  windows  wide  every 
now  and  then  to  change  the  air? 

22.  No  matter  how  clean,  pure,  and  pleasing  persons  may 
be,  in  what  way  does  their  breathing  affect  the  atmosphere 
of  a  room? 


771 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE    STORY    OF    AIR    IN    BODY    BUILDING 

BREATHING 

We  have  learned  some  valuable  facts  about  the  use 
of  pure  air  to  our  bodies.  So  valuable  that  we  shall 
—  it  is  to  be  hoped - 
hereafter  take  special  pains 
to  have  the  air  we  breathe 
as  pure  as  possible.  The 
important  thing,  now,  is 
to  make  sure  that  we  have 
the  habit  of  taking  an 
abundant  supply  of  pure 
air  into  our  lungs.  "  That 
is  easy  enough,"  one 
might  say.  "  All  that  is 
necessary  is  to  keep  on 
breathing." 

Very  likely  that  might 
be  true  if  everybody 
breathed  well;  but,  un-  Showing  portions  of  the  nasai  Pas- 

fortunately,     SUch     is     not     sages,  mouth,  throat,  and  windpipe. 

the  case.     Because  of  incorrect  position,  tight  clothing, 

87 


a,  spinal  column; 
&,  gullet;  c,  wind- 
pipe (lower  part); 
1%  d,  windpipe  (lar- 
ynx) ;  e,  epiglottis ; 
/,  soft  palate  and 
uvula ;  fc,  tongiie ; 
I,  hard  palate. 


88  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

and  other  causes,  many  people  do  not  take  as  much 
air  as  they  should  into  their  lungs  when  they  breathe. 
Before  we  consider  the  different  ways  of  breathing,  how- 
ever, let  us  get  acquainted  with  the  organs  of  the  body 
through  and  into  which  air  passes. 

The  Breathing  Organs.  —  Air  comes  into  the  nose  or 
mouth,  and  passes  through  the  pharynx  (far'inks), 
larynx  (lar'mks),  trachea  (tra'ke-a)  or  windpipe, 
bronchi  (bron'kl),  bronchial  (bron'ki-al)  tubes,  and 
bronchioles  (bron'ki-olz)  into  the  air  cells  of  the  lungs. 
(See  illustrations,  pages  87  and  90.)  The  entire  inner 
surface  of  this  tract  has  a  membrane  lining  which  se- 
cretes a  fluid  called  mucus  (mu'kus). 

From  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  air  passages  there 
grow  little  hairs  called  cilia  (sil'i-a).  These  aid  in 
stopping  dust  and  bacteria.  The  moist  mucous  mem- 
brane likewise  stops  dust  and  bacteria,  and  is  said  to 
make  the  latter  harmless.  When  one  has  a  cold,  the 
secretion  of  the  air  passages  increases  in  amount,  being 
whitish  and  watery  at  first,  but  later  on  thicker  and  of 
a  darker  color. 

The  nose  has  two  divisions,  the  right  nostril  and  the 
left  nostril,  that  are  separated  by  a  partition  (par- 
tish'tiri). 

The  pharynx  is  the  large  cavity  at  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  formed  by  the  joining  of  the  nose  passage  and 
the  mouth.  From  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the 


BREATHING  89 

pharynx  the  Eustachian  (u-sta/ki-an)  tube  leads  to  each 
middle  ear. 

Tonsils.  —  On  each  side  of  the  root  of  the  tongue  is 
an  oval  body  called  a  tonsil.  Its  use  is  unknown.  Ton- 
silitis  (ton-sil-i'tis),  a  disagreeable  sore  throat,  is  caused 
by  inflammation  (in-flam-ma'shun)  of  the  tonsils.  Ton- 
sils sometimes  become  permanently  enlarged,  and  have 
to  be  removed  by  a  surgeon. 

The  larynx  looks  like  an  enlargement  of  the  upper  end 
of  the  trachea  or  windpipe.  It  is  a  tube  about  two 
inches  long,  and  is  made  of  two  large  pieces  of  cartilage 
and  several  smaller  ones.  The  large  cartilage  forms 
the  "  Adam's  apple  "  which  can  be  felt,  and  sometimes 
seen,  in  the  neck  just  under  the  chin.  The  vocal  cords 
are  attached  to  the  cartilage  of  the  larynx. 

The  glottis  is  the  narrow,  slit-like  opening  from  the 
pharynx  into  the  larynx. 

The  epiglottis,  a  small,  triangular  lid,  fastened  just 
in  front  of  the  glottis,  serves  the  useful  purpose  of  pre- 
venting food  from  entering  the  larynx.  Usually  it 
is  erect,  and  allows  air  to  pass  freely;  but  when  food 
and  drink  are  swallowed,  it  covers  the  larynx,  even 
without  our  willing  it. 

The  trachea  or  windpipe  is  a  tube  about  four  inches 
long,  extending  from  the  larynx  into  the  thorax  or 
chest.  The  trachea  is  strengthened  by  a  number  of 
rings  of  cartilage.  These  are  incomplete  at  the  back, 


90 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE   OF   THE  BODY 


so  that  the  esophagus  may  have  plenty  of  room  to 
expand  when  food  is  swallowed. 

The  bronchi  are  the  two  parts  into  which  the  trachea 
divides  in  the  chest.  One  of  these  parts  alone  is  called 
a  bronchus. 

The  bronchial  tubes  are  the  branches  or  subdivisions 
of  the  bronchi.  - 

The  bronchioles  are  the  small  divisions  or  branches  of 
Trachea  the     bronchial 

tubes.  Each 
bronchiole  ends 
in  a  group  of 
air  cells. 

The  lungs 
are  composed 
of  the  bronchi, 
many  bronchial 
tubes,  numer- 
ous bronchi- 
oles, and  thou- 
sands of  air 
cells.  The  top 
or  apex  (a'peks)  of  each  lung  is  just  under  the  collar 
bone,  and  the  base  of  each  is  at  the  base  of  the  chest, 
and  just  above  an  important  muscle  called  the  dia- 
phragm (di'a-fram).  Both  lungs  are  covered  with  a 
membrane  called  the  pleura,  which  also  lines  the 


Showing  trachea,  right  lung,  and  bronchial  tubes 

of  left  lung. 


BEE  A  THING 


91 


chest.  The  walls  of  the  air  cells  of  the  lungs  are 
thin  as  paper  and  very  elastic,  and  have  a  network  of 
blood  vessels. 

The  chest  cavity  in  which  the  lungs  are  situated  is 
bounded  by  the  ribs,  spine  or  backbone,  the  sternum  or 


.10 


II 


The  thorax  or  chest  showing  ribs,  sternum,  lungs,  and  heart. 

breast  bone,  and  below  by  the  strong  muscle  called  the 
diaphragm.  Between  the  ribs  are  the  intercostal  (in- 
ter-kos'tal)  muscles. 


92 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


Act  of  Breathing.  —  Breathing  is  caused  by  the  alter- 
nate expansion  (eks-pan'shun)  and  contraction  (con- 
trak'shun)  of  the  diaphragm  and  the  intercostal  mus- 
cles. The  atmosphere  is  so 
heavy  that  its  pressure  is 
fifteen  pounds  to  the  square 
inch.  When  the  expansion 
of  the  diaphragm  and  the 
intercostal  muscles  enlarges 
the  chest  cavity,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  outside  atmos- 
phere forces  enough  air 
into  the  lungs  to  make  them 
expand  to  fill  the  increased 
space. 

The  contraction  of  the  diaphragm  and  the  intercostal 
muscles  which  follows  makes  the  chest  cavity  smaller 
and  so  forces  the  air  out.  The  illustration  above 
shows  the  appearance  of  the  chest  cavity  and  dia- 
phragm both  at  the  time  air  is  taken  into  the  lungs  and 
when  it  is  forced  out. 

Breathing  in  is  often  spoken  of  as  inhaling  or  inspir- 
ing, and  the  act  is  called  inspiration  (in'spi-ra/shiin). 
Breathing  out  is  called  exhaling  or  expiring,  and  the 
act  is  spoken  of  as  expiration  (eks'pi-ra/shun). 
Breathing  in  and  out,  or  an  inspiration  and  an  expira- 
tion, constitute  respiration  (res'pi-ra/shun).  When 


Showing  positions  of  the  dia- 
phragm, sternum,  and  walls  of  the 
abdomen  in  inspiration  and  expira- 
tion (Zuppke). 


BREATHING  93 

a  doctor  says  that  a  patient's  respiration  is  twenty,  he 
means  that  the  patient  breathes  in  and  out  twenty 
times  a  minute. 

We  can  now  understand  that  the  amount  of  air  taken 
in  at  a  breath,  depends  upon  how  much  the  chest  cavity 
is  enlarged.  The  increase  in  the  size  of  the  chest  cavity 
depends  largely  upon  how  much  the  diaphragm  is 
forced  down  in  the  act  of  breathing. 

Rhythmic  Deep  Breathing.  —  If  we  sit  and  stand 
erect,  with  the  chest  out  and  the  abdomen  in,  the  dia- 
phragm will  expand  freely,  and  we  can  feel  it  crowding 
down  the  organs  of  the  abdomen,  which  go  back  to 
place  as  the  diaphragm  contracts.  This  alternate 
motion  of  the  organs  of  the  abdomen  can  be  plainly 
noticed,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best  signs  of  correct 
breathing.  The  greater  the  action  of  the  diaphragm, 
the  greater  will  be  the  motion  of  the  abdominal  (ab- 
dom'i-nal)  organs.  In  health  this  motion  will  be  reg- 
ular and  rhythmic,  if  one's  position  is  correct. 

Best  Position  for  Breathing.  —  The  first  thing,  then, 
is  to  make  sure  of  erect  position  with  shoulders  back, 
chest  out,  and  abdomen  inclined  inward.  The  second 
is  the  deep  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  diaphragm, 
which  is  shown  by  the  alternate  rhythmic  motion  of 
the  abdominal  organs.  These  are  the  habits  most  im- 
portant to  form  for  boys  and  girls  who  want  to  be 
happy  and  useful.  No  amount  of  money  can  begin 


94 


THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


to  buy  the  good  looks,  good  times,  and  the  skill  in 

both   play  and  work,  that  these  habits  are  sure  to 

bring. 

Causes  of  Poor  Breathing.  —  Round  shoulders  or  a 

stooping  position  of  any  kind  prevent  rhythmic  deep 

breathing.  Sitting 
or  standing  with  the 
abdomen  inclined 
outward  and  the 
chest  inclined  in- 
ward, keeps  the 
breathing  muscles 
from  having  their 
freest  expansion. 
Tight  clothing  about 
the  chest  or  abdo- 
men has  a  similar 
effect.  "Sit  and 

Best  habitual po-            Improper   position;  Stand      erect  "       and 

sition;  chest  is  free  causes  spine  to  curve  (i  -p.                               ±'^4- 

to     expand     and  to  one  side,  raises  one  L>O   not  Wear    tight 

weight    is    easily  hip  and  shoulder  above  Plothmp-  "  flrp  PXfpl- 

shifted     from     one  the  other.  Ui& 

foot  to  the  other.  }ent     mottOCS     for 

those  who  would  get  the  best  possible  benefit  from 
breathing. 

Perhaps  one  may  have  already  formed  the  habit  of 
stooping  as  he  sits  or  stands,  sliding  down  in  his  seat, 
or  sitting  and  standing  with  the  abdomen  inclined  out- 


BREATHING 


95 


ward    and    the   chest   inward. 

How  may  such  bad  habits  be 

broken  and  the  correct 

ones  formed? 

How   to   gain   Correct 

Position.  —  The     chief 

thing  is  to  be  sure  that 

we  know  the  correct  po-  j 

sition,  and  then  ^^  Desk  too  low. 

to  keep  trying  until  that  is  our 
habit.  Exercises  to 
strengthen  the  muscles 
of  the  back  will  assist, 
but  thought  and  per- 
severance (per-se-ver'- 
ans)  are  the  principal 

Slipping  down  in  seat  —  a  poor  position,      aids.       It 

is  easy  to  understand  that  child- 
hood is  the  very  best  time  to  culti- 
vate   correct   position.      At 
that  time  there  is  more  ani- 
mal matter  than  mineral  in 
bones,  and  so  their  posi- 
tion   is    more    easily  | 
changed  than  when  one  I 
grows    older,    since    the  correct  position. 

amount  of  mineral  matter  in  bones  increases  with  age, 


96 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


Value  of  Improved  Position.  -  -  There  are  many  im- 
portant things  to  learn  in  school.     Few,  however,  can 

begin  to  be  so  valuable 
as  the  habit  of  erect  sit- 
ting and  standing  posi- 
tion. A  gain  of  25%  in 
standing  in  arithmetic  or 
geography  may  seem  a 
great  deal  both  to  chil- 
dren and  to  their  par- 
ents. Yet  a  gain  of  25% 
in  correctness  of  posture 
might  easily  result  in  a 
thousand  times  more 
benefit. 

Another  thing  well 
worth  thinking  about  is 
that  improved  position  means  handsomer  appearance. 
Strength  and  beauty  go  with  correct  position.  In  the 
pictures  on  page  94  notice  how  much  erect  position 
improves  appearance.  It  is  right  that  we  should  all 
want  to  appear  as  well  as  possible.  Any  one  who  really 
wants  to  look  his  best  will  keep  on  trying  for  correct 
posture  until  that  is  his  natural  habit.  If,  besides,  he 
is  careful  to  breathe  as  pure  air  as  possible,  and  forms 
the  habit  of  rhythmic  deep  breathing  as  well,  his  start 
towards  a  lifetime  of  the  best  health  and  finest  appear- 
ance is  certainly  most  excellent. 


from  Dr.  Masher's  "Hygienic  Desks  for 
School  Children,'1''  Educational  Review. 

An  adjustable  seat  and'desk  as  used 
for  writing. 


BREATHING 


97 


How  Breathing  purifies  the  Blood.  —  Granted,  then, 
that  we  do  fill  our  lungs  with  pure  air  when  we  breathe. 
How  is  its  oxygen  ex- 
changed for  the  carbon 
dioxide  of  the  blood? 
This  Is  very  readily  ex- 
plained. The  extremely 
thin  tissue  of  the  air  cells 
has  a  network  of  tiny 
blood  vessels  containing 
blood  made  dark  by  car- 
bon dioxide  and  other  im- 
purities. The  tissue  is  so 
thin  that  the  exchange  of 
oxygen  of  the  air  for  car-  Same  seat  and  desk' as  used  for  reading' 
bon  dioxide  and  waste  of  the  blood  takes  place  through 
the  walls  of  the  cells.  If  the  thousands  of  air  cells  of 
the  lungs  were  spread  out,  it  is  estimated  that  they 
would  more  than  cover  the  surface  of  the  body.  Thus 
we  can  see  how  well  the  blood  may  be  purified  in  our 
lungs,  if  we  are  only  careful  to  have  pure  air  to  breathe, 
and  to  form  the  habit  of  breathing  that  will  insure  our 
bodies  a  plentiful  supply. 

POINTS  FOR  SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  The  important  muscle  between  the  chest  and  the 
abdomen  is  called  the  diaphragm.  The  muscles  between 
the  ribs  are  called  the  intercostal  muscles. 


98  THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE   BODY 

2.  Breathing  is  caused  by  the  alternate  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  diaphragm  and  intercostal  muscles,  which 
alternately  increases  and  decreases  the  size  of  the  chest 
cavity,  thus  allowing  air  to  come  into  the  lungs  and  also 
forcing  it  out. 

3.  In  deep  breathing  the  diaphragm   expands  so  as  to 
cause  a  noticeable  pressure  on  the  organs  of  the  abdomen. 

4.  Correct  position  is  essential  for  the  freest  and  best 
motion  of  the  diaphragm.    Sitting  or  standing  erect  with  the 
shoulders  back,  and  chest  inclined  outward  and  the  abdomen 
inclined  inward,  is  the  correct  position  for  rhythmic  deep 
breathing. 

5.  In  health,  one  whose  posture  is  correct,  can  readily 
notice  the  rhythmic  deep  movement  of  the  diaphragm  and 
its  pressure  upon  the  abdominal  organs.      We  should   not 
be  satisfied  with  our  breathing  until  this  rhythmic  deep 
movement  of  the  diaphragm  is  our  regular  habit. 

6.  The  carbon  dioxide  and  waste  of  the  blood  is  exchanged 
for  the  oxygen  of  the  air  through  the  thin  walls  of  the  air 
cells  of  the  lungs. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Through  what  passages  does  air  travel  in  reaching 
the  air  cells  of  the  lungs? 

2.  With  what  are  these  passages  lined? 

3.  Tell  what  cilia  are  and  state  their  use. 

4.  Tell  what  mucus  is  and  mention  its  uses. 

5.  Describe    each    of   the    following:     (a)   pharynx;   (6) 
glottis;    (c)  epiglottis;    (d)  tonsils;    (e)  larynx;  (/)  trachea; 
(g)  bronchi;    (h)  bronchial  tubes;    (i)  bronchioles;    (j)  air 
cells;    (k)  the  lungs. 

6.  What  is  the  pleura? 

7.  What  is  the  apex  of  a  lung?  the  base? 

8.  Tell  by  what  the  chest  cavity  is  bounded. 


BREATHING^  99 

9.    What  is  the  diaphragm? 

10.  What  are  the  intercostal  muscles? 

11.  Tell  what  causes  air  to  come  into  the  lungs. 

12.  What  forces  air  out  of  the  lungs? 

13.  Describe  the  position  that  is  best  for  deep  breathing. 

14.  What  is  meant:    (a)    by  inhaling  or   inspiring   air? 
(6)  by  exhaling  or  expiring  air?  (c)  by  respiration? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  a  person's  respiration 
is  twehty? 

16.  How  can  we  tell  if  rhythmic  deep  breathing  is  our 
habit? 

17.  Where  and  how  does  the  exchange  of  oxygen  for  the 
carbon  dioxide  and  waste  of  the  blood  take  place? 

18.  If  spread  out  flat,  about  how  much  surface  would  the 
air  cells  of  the  lungs  cover? 

19.  What  are  the  most  important  habits  to  form,  if  we 
want  to  get  the  greatest  possible  benefit  from  our  breathing? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE    STORY    OF    AIR    IN    BODY    BUILDING 

MOUTH    BREATHING    AND    ADENOIDS 

Use  of  the  Nose.  -  -  The  long,  narrow  passages  of  the 
nose  were  made  both  to  cleanse  and  to  warm  the  air. 
The  dust,  not  stopped  by  the  cilia,  sticks  to  the  moist 
mucous  membrane  lining,  and  is  sent  out  when  the  nose 
is  blown.  The  mucus  also  arrests  bacteria,  and  makes 
them  harmless. 

Mouth  Breathing. --When  air  is  taken  in  through 
the  mouth,  it  passes  to  the  lungs  far  more  quickly  than 
when  breathed  through  the  nose.  For  this  reason,  it  is 
neither  so  well  cleaned  nor  so  well  warmed  as  that  which 
enters  through  the  nose  passages.  It  is  also  a  fact  that 
one  can  endure  breathing  poisonous  air  through  the 
nose  much  longer  than  through  the  mouth.  Without 
doubt,  even  the  very  best  air  is  better  fitted  for  use 'in 
the  lungs,  if  it  comes  through  the  nose  passages. 

Reasons  for  Breaking  the  Mouth-breathing  Habit. — 
Suppose  a  person  has  been  carelessly  breathing  through 
the  mouth.  Why  should  he  form  the  habit  of  nose 
breathing  without  delay?  There  are  several  good 
reasons.  He  can  run  faster  and  better.  He  can  play 

100 


MOUTH  BREATHING  AND 


harder  and  longer.  He  will  not  disfigure  his  counten- 
ance by  forming  the  habit  of  constantly  keeping  the 
mouth  partly  open.  He  will  not  run  the  risk  of  becom- 
ing partly  deaf,  or  of  growing  stupid  in  school  through 
lack  of  power  to  give  attention.  In  fact,  his  health, 
strength,  and  appearance  will  all  be  improved  by 
breathing  through  the  nose. 

Testing  the  Nostrils.  —  Since  we  want  as  full  and  free 
a  supply  of  air  as  possible,  we  should  also  be  sure 
that  we  are  breathing  through  both  nostrils.  One 
nostril  is  often  stopped  up  without  being  noticed.  It 
is  well,  once  in  a  while,  to  press  one  nostril  closed,  while 
we  breathe  through  the 
other.  In  this  way  we 
can  tell  if  both  passages 
are  open  and  unob- 
structed. 

Adenoids.  —  Some- 
times mouth  breathing 
is  compelled  by  polypi, 
adenoids,  and  other 
growths  in  the  nose. 
The  most  common  of 
these  in  children  is  ade- 
noids. They  are  spongy  growths,  which  not  only 
prevent  air  from  passing  through  the  nose,  but  also 
often  interfere  with  the  blood  supply  to  the  brain. 


Showing  the  location  of  adenoid 
growths  (Zuppke). 


102          TF.F   VUILDWG  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

Effects  of  Adenoids.  —  Naturally,  then,  adenoids 
cause  children  to  be  listless  and  dull  in  school.  They 

are  also  a  frequent  cause  of 
deafness.  Another  noticeable 
effect  is  the  habit  of  constantly 
keeping  the  mouth  partly  open. 
In  many  cases,  besides  the 
partly  open  mouth  and  deaf- 
Facial  expression  in  mouth-  ness>  the  afflicted  person  is  in 

?heantosiegandbreathingthrOUSh    the  hablt  °f  staring   in   a   half- 

vacant  manner. 

Why  Adenoids  are  not  removed.  —  Even  with  such 
marked  symptoms,  children  are  often  allowed  to  go 
for  years  without  having  the  adenoids  removed.  The 
symptoms  are  so  evident  that  the  trouble  ought  to  be 
easily  guessed,  yet  many  parents  have  nothing  done. 
They  seem  to  take  it  for  granted  that  it  is  the  child's 
misfortune  to  be  backward  in  school  and  to  have  deli- 
cate health. 

This  is  a  great  pity,  since  adenoids  can  be  removed 
by  an  operation  which  is  neither  painful  nor  very  ex- 
pensive. Many  children  have  had  this  operation 
performed  with  great  satisfaction  to  all  concerned. 
Indeed  the  gain  in  health,  standing  in  school,  and  good 
appearance  have  been  so  great  in  many  cases  as  to  seem 
almost  a  miracle. 

Very  likely  many  parents  do  not  know  enough  of  the 


MOUTH  BREATHING  AND  ADENOIDS  103 

symptoms  of  adenoids  to  realize  that  their  children 
have  them.  And  even  when  convinced  of  that  fact, 
the  possible  expense  or  pain  that  they  imagine  con- 
nected with  all  surgical  operations,  keeps  them  from 
consulting  a  physician  of  standing.  Of  course  they 
do  not  realize  how  greatly  the  operation  would  benefit 
the  future  health  and  success  of  the  child.  If  they  did, 
no  labor  or  sacrifice  to  earn  the  necessary  money  could 
possibly  be  too  great. 

If  one  happens  to  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  ade- 
noids, there  are  few,  if  any,  benefits  to  look  forward 
to  more  eagerly  than  their  speedy  removal.  Perhaps 
we  may  know  children  that  seem  to  have  the  well- 
known  symptoms  of  adenoids.  If  so,  how  great  a 
service  we  can  perform  by  telling  their  parents  of  the 
marvelous  benefits  that  have  often  resulted  by  having 
these  obstructions  to  the  nose  passages  removed. 

It  is  a  fine  thing  in  this  world  to  be  able  to  be  our  best, 
do  our  best,  and  look  our  best,  as  much  of  the  time  as  is 
possible.  Any  of  these  desirable  conditions  is  simply 
impossible,  if  the  nose  passages  are  stopped  up  by 
adenoids.  This  is  a  fact  well  worth  remembering,  not 
only  for  our  own  benefit,  but  also  for  that  of  our  friends. 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.   The  nose  passages  are  specially  constructed  both  to 
cleanse  and  to  warm  the  air.     If  we  want  to  be  our  healthiest 


104          THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

and  to  play  and  work  our  best,  we  shall  form  the  habit  of 
breathing  through  the  nose. 

2.  Continuous    mouth    breathing    injures    health,   and 
even  shortens  life. 

3.  Adenoids  are  growths  that  stop  up  the  nose  passages. 
Their  presence  can  often  be  detected  by  the  habit  of  con- 
stantly keeping  the  mouth  open.     They  cause  dullness   of 
the  mind  and  partial  deafness,  and  also  lessen  the  general 
health.     When  removed  by  a  simple  operation,  all  of  these 
defects  soon  disappear. 

4.  The  Big  Four  in  connection  with  the  use  of  air  to  the 
body  are  Good  Ventilation,  Breathing  through  the  Nose, 
Erect  Position,  and  Rhythmic  Deep  Breathing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  the  use  of  the  cilia  in  the  nose  and  other  air 
passages. 

2.  Tell  two  uses  of  mucus  in  the  air  passages. 

3.  Give  two  good  reasons  why  it  is  better  to  breathe 
through  the  nose  than  through  the  mouth. 

4.  State  two  bad  effects  of  continuous  mouth  breathing. 

5.  How  may  we  make  sure  that  we  are  breathing  through 
both  nostrils? 

6.  What  are  adenoids? 

7.  Mention  several  symptoms  of  the  presence  of  adenoids. 

8.  What  benefits  result  from  having  adenoids  removed? 

9.  Tell  all  the  benefits  of  nose  breathing. 

10.   Tell  what  is  said  of  adenoids,   their  effects,  and 
removal. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE    STORY    OF    WATER   IN    BODY    BUILDING 

THE   ORGANS   OF   EXCRETION 

Amount  of  Water  in  the  Body.  —  It  may  have  been 
a  surprise  to  find  that  vegetables,  grains,  meat,  and 
other  foods  contain  much  water.  Perhaps  it  will  seem 
even  stranger  to  learn  that  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
human  body  is  composed  of  the  same  liquid.  Blood 
is  about  four-fifths  water,  and  muscle,  fat,  cartilage 
(kar'ti-laj),  and  even  bone,  all  have  a  share.  When 
you  think  that  if  all  the  water  were  pressed  out  of  the 
tissues  of  your  body,  only  one-third  of  your  entire 
weight  would  be  left,  you  can  realize  what  an  important 
part  this  common  liquid  has  in  body  building. 

Water  is  constantly  leaving  the  body  in  perspiration 
(per-spi-ra'shun)  through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and  in 
watery  vapor  from  the  lungs.  There  is  also  much 
water  in  the  urine  excreted  (eks-kret'ed)  by  the  kidneys. 

This*  loss  is  made  up  by  the  water  in  the  foods 
that  we  eat  and  the  liquids  drunk  during  the  day. 
The  harder  we  work  or  play,  the  more  water  the  body 
gives  out.  Hence  the  thirstier  we  become,  and  the 
more  water  we  drink.  Thirst  shows  that  our  tissues 

105 


106 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


Hair 


need  water  just  as  hunger  tells  that  they  need  food. 

Men  have  lived  many  days  without  food;    but  great 

discomfort  and  even  death  would  follow,  if  one  had  to 

go  many  hours  without  water. 

The    Skin.  —  Besides  supplying  the  tissues,  water 

performs  two  other  very  useful  services  for  the  body. 

It  helps  to  keep  both 
\EpMermfc  tne  outside  and  the 
inside  clean.  The 
outside  covering  of 
the  body,  the  skin, 
has  two  layers.  The 
outer  and  thinner  is 
called  the  epidermis 
(ep'i-der'mis).  The 

inner  and  thicker  layer  is  named  the  dermis.     In  the 

dermis  are  two  sets  of  tubes  called  the   perspiratory 

(per-spir'a-to-ry)  glands  and  the  oil  glands. 
Perspiratory  Glands.  —  The  perspiratory  glands  are 

tubes  lying  deep  in  the  dermis  or  in  the  fat  underneath. 

An  outlet  or  duct  runs  in  a 

spiral  manner  to  the  surface 

of  the  skin.    The  body  has 

many    thousands    of    these 

glands.     In   fact,  it   is   said 

that     if     all    the  perspiratory  Surface    of   palm,    magnified, 

showing    ridges  and  pores  from 

glands  of  a  person  of  aver-    sweat  glands. 


A  vertical  section  of  the  skin  (Newell). 


WATER  AND   THE  ORGANS   OF  EXCRETION       107 

age  size  were  placed  end  to  end,  they  would  reach 
about  twenty-eight  miles. 

The  liquid  given  out  from  these  miles  of  glands 
is  called  sweat  or  perspiration  (per-spi-ra'shun).  Be- 
sides water,  it  contains  poisonous  waste  that  the  body 
must  get  rid  of  to  keep  healthy.  On  hot  days,  or  when 
playing  or  working  hard,  we  can  see  and  feel  perspira- 
tion on  the  skin.  Perhaps  we  may  not  think  that  it 
comes  from  our  pores  at  other  times.  Nevertheless, 
the  glands  of  healthy  skin  are  giving  out  some  of  this 
waste  and  water  all  of  the  time,  but  in  such  small 
amounts  that  it  is  called  insensible  (in-sen'si-bl)  per- 
spiration. 

Like  watery  vapor  from  the  lungs,  perspiration  has 
a  disagreeable  odor.  Though  the  water  evaporates, 
the  waste  substances  remain  on  the  skin  or  under- 
clothing. These,  together  with  oil  from  the  oil  glands 
and  tiny  scales  that  are  shed  from  the  skin,  collect 
and  obstruct  or  interfere  with  the  work  of  the  pores. 
On  this  account  the  lungs  and  kidneys  have  more  than 
their  share  of  waste  to  excrete,  or  the  body  is  not  fully 
freed  of  its  poisons.  As  a  result,  ill  health  or  disease 
is  quite  likely  to  follow. 

Bathing.  -  -  The  best  way  to  keep  the  pores  of  the 
skin  active  and  healthy  is  to  bathe  the  entire  body 
once  a  day  in  cold  or  tepid  water,  and  at  least  once 
a  week  in  warm  water.  Soap  should  be  used  with  the 


108         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


WATER   AND   TUE  ORGANS   OF  EXCRETION       109 

water  to  remove  the  oil  and  scales.  Frequent  bathing 
is  necessary,  not  only  to  have  the  pores  active  and 
healthy,  but  also  to  keep  the  body  clean  and  free  from 
unpleasant  odors. 

One  of  the  best  forms  of  bathing  is  the  daily  morn- 
ing sponge  or  plunge  cold  bath,  followed  by  vigorous 
rubbing.  Besides  cleansing  the  skin  and  keeping  the 
pores  healthy,  it  stimulates  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
As  a  rule,  it  is  a  great  aid  in  keeping  one  free  from  colds 
and  in  generally  improving  one's  health  and  vigor. 

Tepid  baths  cleanse,  but  do  not  stimulate.  Warm 
baths  cleanse  more  thoroughly  than  either  cold  or 
tepid,  and  should  be  taken  at  least  once  a  week. 
When  about  the  normal  temperature  (tem'per-a-tur) 
of  the  body,  98J°,  or  a  little  more,  they  are  often  a 
helpful  aid  to  sleep. 

Steam  or  hot-air  baths  that  cause  a  free  flow  of  per- 
spiration are  excellent  to  prevent  colds,  or  even  to  help 
to  get  rid  of  one  that  is  well  started.  For  a  person 
whose  work  is  indoors  and  causes  little  perspiration, 
such  a  bath,  once  a  week,  is  one  of  the  very  best  aids  to 
health.  They  may  be  taken  at  home  in  a  rubber  cloth 
cabinet  bath  or  something  similar,  or  at  the  public 
Russian  or  Turkish  baths  that  are  found  in  most 
cities. 

The  Kidneys. --The  kidneys,  like  the  pores  of  the 
skin,  excrete  waste.  They  are  bean-shaped  organs 


110 


THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


about  the  length  of  a  finger,  and  are  situated  in  the  back 
of  the  abdomen  just  below  the  diaphragm.  They  are 
composed  of  thousands  of  blood  vessels  and  tiny  tubes, 

so  numerous  that  if  placed 
end  to  end,  they  would 
reach  several  miles. 

As  the  blood  flows 
through  the  kidneys, 
these  tubes  take  from  it 
water,  waste,  called  urea 
(u're-a),  and  some  min- 
eral matter.  This  fluid, 


A  longitudinal  section  of  the  kidneys 
(Huxley)',  Ct,  cortex;  m,  medulla;  Py, 
pyramid  in  the  medulla ;  P,  pelvis ;  U, 
ureters;  RA,  renal  artery. 

which  is  called  urine,  flows 
through  a  tube,  named  the 
ureter  (u-re'ter),  into  the 
bladder,  in  which  it  is  stored 
until  it  passes  frcfm  the  body. 
It  is  very  important  that 
the  bladder  should  be  emptied 
regularly  several  times  a  day, 
for,  if  it  is  allowed  to  become  too  full,  poisonous  urea 


The  kidneys  and  bladder 

(Ckeever). 


WATER  AND   THE  ORGANS   OF  EXCRETION       111 

will  not  be  taken  from  the  blood  as  it  should  be.  It  is 
also  a  strain  on  the  muscles  of  the  bladder  to  hold  too 
large  a  quantity.  To  injure  oneself  by  retaining  urine 
too  long  is,  indeed,  false  modesty.  It  will  rarely  oc- 
cur that  relief  cannot  be  easily  had,  if  good  sense  is 
used. 

Benefits  of  drinking  Pure  Water.  -  -  Drinking  freely 
of  water  is  excellent  both  for  the  pores  of  the  skin  and 
for  the  kidneys.  At  least  two  quarts  of  water  a  day 
should  be  drunk,  and  more  is  better.  Many  persons 
make  the  mistake  of  drinking  little  or  no  water,  except 
what  they  take  in  their  coffee  or  tea.  By  and  by, 
some  dangerous  disease  afflicts  them.  Then  they  are 
surprised  to  be  told  by  the  wise  doctor  that  if  they  had 
drunk  plenty  of  water  daily,  their  kidneys  would  have 
been  kept  well  flushed,  and  the  disease  would  very  likely 
not  have  started. 

Drinking  freely  of  water  is  good  not  only  for  the 
kidneys  but  also  for  the  digestive  organs.  We  have 
learned  in  a  former  chapter  that  little  or  no  water  should 
be  drunk  with  meals.  But  a  glass  or  two  of  cool  or 
hot  water  a  half  hour  or  more  before  meals,  especially 
before  breakfast,  cleanses  the  digestive  organs  and  helps 
to  prevent  constipation.  Many  have  also  found  this 
simple  practice  the  best  possible  cure  for  indigestion. 

Pure  Water. — We  should,  however,  take  pains  to 
have  our  drinking  water  pure.  Water  in  wells  may 


112 


THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


A  good  way  to  kill  germs  in  drinking  water  —  boil 
twenty  minutes. 


drain  outhouses,  barnyards,  or  cemeteries,  and  so  be- 
come impure.     The  water  of   a    river   or 
lake  may  be  made  impure  by  sewage.    Boil- 
ing  water   twenty  minutes  kills  typhoid 
and   other   disease    bacteria.      This   does 
not    mean    only 
twenty   minutes 
on  the  stove,  but 
twenty   minutes 
after     boiling 
commences. 
When  in  doubt 
as  to  the  purity 
of  the  drinking  supply,  boil  the  water  twenty  minutes. 

Harmful  bacteria  have  been  known  to  be  in  ice  taken 
from  a  lake  or  river  containing  sewage.  On  this  ac- 
count it  is  always  safer  to  cool  drinking  water  by  put- 
ting it  on  the  ice  than  by  putting  ice  into  the  water. 

Good  Water  Remedies.  --  Water  is  an  excellent  rem- 
edy in  many  common  ailments.  In  cases  of  headache, 
caused  by  indigestion,  drinking  freely  of  warm  water 
will  usually  compel  any  offending  substance  to  pass 
from  the  stomach  or  to  be  vomited.  Hot  water  or 
hot  lemonade  drunk  just  before  going  to  bed  will  often 
relieve  a  cold  by  starting  the  perspiration.  Placing 
a  hot-water  bottle  against  or  near  any  part  of  the 
body  that  is  in  pain  will  often  be  a  relief.  Soaking  the 


WATER  AND   THE   ORGANS   OF  EXCRETION       113 

feet  in  hot  water  just  before  going  to  bed  is  good  for 
colds,  headache,  or  sleeplessness.  An  enema  (en'e-ma) 
of  tepid,  warm,  or  cool  water  forced  by  a  fountain 
syringe  (sir'inj)  into  the  rectum,  the  lower  end  of  the 
bowels,  often  wards  off  serious  sickness  by  causing  a 
thorough  discharge  of  waste. 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  About  two-thirds  of  the  human  body  is  composed  of 
water. 

2.  The  body's  outside  covering,  the  skin,  has  thousands 
of  perspiratory  glands.     They  excrete  perspiration,  which, 
besides  water,  contains  poisonous  waste  matter. 

3.  Waste,  scales   of   skin,  and  oil    collect  on  the  skin, 
and  obstruct  or  interfere  with  the  work  of  the  pores. 

4.  A  daily  cold  or  tepid  bath  and  a  warm  bath  at  least 
once  a  week,  are  necessary  to  keep  the  skin  clean  and  its 
pores  active  and  healthy. 

5.  The  two   kidneys   are  situated  in  the  back  part  of 
the  abdomen,  just  below  the  diaphragm.    They  excrete  urine, 
which  is  composed  of  water,  some  mineral  matter,  and  a 
poisonous  waste  called  urea. 

6.  Urine  is  stored  in  the  bladder.     The  bladder  should 
be  relieved  of  its  urine  regularly  several  times  a  day.      When 
urine  is  retained  too  long  in  the  bladder,  nervous  strain  may 
result  and  poisonous  urea  is  not  taken  up  from  the  blood  as 
it  should  be. 

7.  Drinking  freely  of  water  flushes  the  kidneys  and  helps 
to  keep  them  active  and  healthy. 

8.  Several  glasses  of  cool  or  hot  water  a  half  hour  or 
more  before  meals,  especially  before  breakfast,  cleanses  and 


114         THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE   OF  THE  BODY 

stimulates  the  digestive  organs,  and  also  helps  to  prevent 
constipation  of  the  bowels. 

9.  Water  from  wells  near  outhouses,  cemeteries,  or 
barnyards,  or  from  rivers  or  lakes  containing  sewage,  is 
likely  to  be  impure.  Such  water  should  be  boiled  twenty 
minutes  before  it  is  used  for  drinking 

10.   Ice  from  streams  containing  sewage  should  not  be 
put  into  drinking  water. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  what  part  of  your  own  weight  is  composed  of 
water. 

2.  In  what  forms  does  water  leave  the  body? 

3.  How  is  this  loss  made  up? 

4.  What  causes  thirst? 

5.  Why  are  we  more  likely  to  be  thirsty  at  times  of  hard 
play  and  work  than  when  we  are  not  active? 

6.  Describe  the  two  layers  of  the  skin. 

7.  Name  the  two  sets  of  glands  that  the  skin  contains. 

8.  Tell  all  that  is  said  about  the  skin. 

9.  Describe  the  perspiratory  glands  and  tell  how  numer- 
ous they  are. 

10.  Tell  what  is  said  of  perspiration. 

11.  What  is  insensible  perspiration? 

12.  Tell  all  that  is  said  about  the  perspiratory  glands  and 
perspiration. 

13.  Explain  why  bathing  is  necessary. 

14.  At  least  how  often  should  one  bathe? 

15.  Tell  the  benefits  of  the  daily  morning  sponge  or  plunge 
cold  bath. 

16.  What  is  said  of  warm  baths? 

17.  Tell  the  benefits  of  steam  or  hot-air  baths. 

18.  Describe  the  kidneys. 


WATER  AND   THE  ORGANS  OF  EXCRETION       115 

19.  What  important  service  do  the  kidneys  perform? 

20.  In  what  is  urine  stored? 

21.  Why  should  the  bladder  be  relieved  regularly  several 
times  a  day? 

22.  What  harm  may  be  caused  by  retaining  urine  too  long 
in  the  bladder? 

23.  At  least  how  much  water  should  be  drunk  daily? 

24.  In  what  way  do  people  sometimes  find  out  that  they 
have  been  drinking  too  little  water? 

25.  Tell  how  the  digestive  organs  may  be  helped  by  drink- 
ing freely  of  water,  especially  before  breakfast. 

26.  Mention  several  ways  in  which  hot  water  is  a  simple 
but  excellent  remedy. 

27.  Tell  how  to  make  water  from  an  impure  source  safe 
for  drinking. 

28.  Tell  why  it  is  better  to  cool  drinking  water  by  placing 
it  on  ice  than  by  placing  ice  in  the  water. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE    STORY    OF    OUR    WONDERFUL    RIVER    OF   LIFE 

THE    BLOOD    AND   THE    CIRCULATION 

We  have  read  that  blood  carries  digested  food  and 
oxygen  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  What  is  blood? 
Through  what  does  it  travel  in  its  rounds  through  the 
body,  and  what  force  drives  it?  Blood  is  composed 
of  a  liquid  called  plasma  and  tiny  boat-like  substances 
known  as  red  corpuscles  (kor'pus-s'lz)  and  white  cor- 
puscles. 

The  plasma  is  a  colorless  liquid,  about  nine-tenths  of 

which  is  water.  It 
supplies  the  tissues 
with  nourishment, 
and  also  helps  to  con- 
vey carbon  dioxide 
and  waste  to  the 
lungs. 

The  red  corpuscles 
form  about  half  the 
weight  of  the  blood, 
and  are  about  five 

Human  blood  corpuscles.    Magnified 

about  200  times.  hundred  times  more 

116 


THE  BLOOD  AND   THE  CIRCULATION  117 

numerous  than  the  white  corpuscles.  Many  thousands 
of  red  corpuscles  are  said  to  be  in  one  drop  of  blood. 
They  carry  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to  the  tissues  of  the 
body,  and  bring  back  carbon  dioxide  to  the  lungs. 

White  corpuscles  destroy  disease  bacteria  that  get 
into  the  body.  They  also  perform  other  useful  ser- 
vices. 

Arteries  are  the  tubes  or  cord-like  canals  through 
which  blood  passes  from  the  heart.  Their  walls  are 
very  elastic.  After  death  the  arteries  are  always  found 
empty.  For  this  reason,  before  the  discovery  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  it  was  thought  that  they  carried 
air. 

Veins  are  the  tubes  or  cord-like  canals  through 
which  blood  travels  to  the  heart.  Their  walls  are 
thinner  than  those  of  the  arteries  and  not  as  elastic. 

Capillaries  are  the  tiny  blood  vessels  connecting  the 
arteries  and  veins.  They  are  so  small  and  so  numerous 
that  you  cannot  prick  the  flesh  of  the  body  without 
drawing  blood.  Capillaries  allow  plasma,  oxygen, 
and  white  corpuscles  to  pass  among  the  tissues.  They 
also  let  carbon  dioxide  and  other  waste  pass  from  the 
tissues  into  the  blood. 

The  heart  is  the  organ  that  forces  blood  through  the 
arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins  back  to  the  heart  again. 
It  is  situated  between  the  lungs,  and  is  shaped  like  a 
pear,  having  its  pointed  end  downward  and  toward 


118          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

the  left  side  of  the  body.  Its  thick  muscular  walls  are 
divided  into  four  chambers.  The  two  upper  chambers 
are  called  the  right  auricle  and  the  left  aurick,  and  the 

two  lower,  the  right  ventricle 
and  the  left  ventricle.  The 
heart  is  an  involuntary  (in- 
vol'un-ta-ry)  muscle,  —  that 
is,  it  works  without  our 
willing  it  to  do  so.  A  tough 
membrane,  called  the  peri- 
cardium (pe/i-kar'di-um), 
surrounds  the  heart,  protect- 
ing it  from  injury.  Each 
auricle  opens  into  the  ven- 
tricle beneath  it,  but  there 

The  heart.  .  -i  .-, 

is  no  opening  between  the 
two  auricles  or  the  two  ventricles. 

The  Course  of  the  Blood.  —  A  contraction  of  the  right 
auricle  forces  blood  into  the  right  ventricle.  The  latter 
then  contracts,  forcing  the  blood  through  the  pul- 
monary artery  into  the  numerous  capillaries  of  the 
lungs,  thence  through  the  pulmonary  vein  to  the  left 
auricle  of  the  heart.  By  contraction  of  the  left  auricle, 
blood  that  has  come  from  the  lungs  is  forced  into 
the  left  ventricle  whose  contraction  drives  it  into  the 
large  artery  called  the  aorta,  the  largest  artery  of  the 
body.  This  divides  and  subdivides  until  every  part  of 


THE  BLOOD  AND   THE  CIRCULATION  119 


it? 


The  large  blood  vessels  of  the  body :  a,  left  common  carotid  artery;  6,  left 
jugular  vein;  c,  arch  of  aorta;  d,  blood  vessels  of  the  left  lung;  e,  left  kidney 
with  renal  vein  and  artery ;  /,  abdominal  aorta ;  g,  left  common  illiac  artery ; 
h,  femoral  artery;  j,  ulnar  artery;  k,  radial  artery;  I,  ascending  vena  cava; 
m,  descending  vena  cava ;  n,  blood  vessels  of  the  knee ;  o,  right  subclavian  vein. 


120 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CAEE  OF  THE  BODY 


the    body    is    reached.      The    blood 


Asetwft 

rena 


flows  through 
these  divi- 
sions, then 
into  the  capil- 
laries,  and 
back  through 
the  veins  to 
the  right  auri- 
cle  of  the 
heart.  Small 
valves  be- 
tween each 
auricle  and 
the  ventricle 
into  which  it 

Showing  the  course  of  blood  through  the  heart  (Zuppke).  i 

opens,  and 

between  the  ventricles  and  the  arteries  leading  from 
them,  keep  the  blood  from  flowing  backward. 

Color  of  Blood.  -  -  The  blood  which  comes  through 
the  veins  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  and  passes 
through  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  lungs,  is  dark 
red  in  color.  The  exchange  of  carbon  dioxide  and  waste 
for  oxygen,  which  takes  place  in  the  capillaries  of  the 
lungs,  changes  the  color  of  blood  to  a  bright  red,  which 
it  retains  while  it  is  in  the  arteries. 

Pulse.  --The  contraction  or  beating  of  the  heart  is 
sometimes  called  a  pulsation.  The  arteries  are  so 


THE  BLOOD  AND   THE  CIRCULATION  121 

elastic  that  they  contract  and  relax  as  the  blood  flows 
through  them,  thus  plainly  indicating  the  heart  beats. 
By  placing  a  finger  on  an  ar- 
tery, the  rate  of  the  heart  beat 
can  be  easily  counted.  The 
inside  of  the  wrist ,  just  below 
the  base  of  the  thumb,  is  the 
place  where  the  heart  beat  can 
be  most  readily  found.  The 

Showing  how  to  find  the  pulse 

heart  of  an  adult  male  usually  (&*«n«ro. 

beats  about  seventy  times  a  minute,  and  that  of  an 
adult  female  about  eighty  times  a  minute.  These  are 
called  the  normal  rate. 

Illness  often  changes  the  pulse  rate,  since  the  poisons 
it  causes  affect  the  nerve  that  controls  the  heart. 
One  of  the  first  things  the  doctor  usually  does  is  to 
feel  his  patient's  pulse.  He  wants  to  find  out  how 
frequent  and  strong  the  heart  beat  is.  If  the  heart 
beat  is  strong,  and  near  the  normal  rate,  it  is  a  sign  that 
the  illness  is  not  very  serious.  If  the  pulse  indicates 
that  the  beat  of  the  heart  is  weak  and  much  above  or 
below  the  normal  rate,  it  is  a  symptom  of  more  or  less 
serious  sickness.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  be  able  to  judge 
the  heart's  action  through  the  pulse.  Every  adult 
member  of  a  family  should  be  able  to  do  this.  Illness 
may  often  be  warded  off  by  a  little  care,  if  the  heart 
beat  shows  that  rest  and  quiet  are  necessary. 


122          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

The  Heart's  Work.  —  As  a  rule,  the  heart  beats  more 
than  four  hundred  times  an  hour  and  about  one  hun- 
dred thousand  times  a  day.  The  only  rest  it  has  is  a 
very  short  pause  between  beats.  The  various  organs 
and  tissues  must  be  kept  supplied  with  oxygen  and  nu- 
triment. They  must  also  be  constantly  relieved  of  car- 
bon dioxide  and  waste.  For  these  reasons,  the  heart 
must  keep  working  on  and  on  with  only  its  slight  rest 
between  beats.  Life  ends  when  the  heart  stops  beat- 
ing. An  adult's  body  contains  about  six  quarts  of 
blood.  This  is  driven  through  the  body  so  frequently, 
however,  that  the  heart  can  be  said  to  lift  several  hogs- 
heads daily. 

Alcohol.  —  Alcoholic  drinks  so  affect  the  white  cor- 
puscles of  the  blood  that  they  are  not  effective  in  the 
work  of  resisting  disease.  Such  drinks  enlarge  the 
arteries  and  cause  too  much  blood  to  come  to  the  surface 
of  the  body.  In  time  they  will  cause  the  arteries  to 
become  so  hardened  that  they  may  easily  burst  and 
cause  death.  Alcohol  will  also  in  time  change  the  mus- 
cles of  the  heart  into  fat,  causing  weakness  and  death. 

Tobacco.  —  The  use  of  tobacco  sometimes  causes 
a  noticeable  change  in  the  action  of  the  heart.  The 
condition  is  known  as  a  "  tobacco  heart."  If  the  use 
of  tobacco  is  continued,  serious  results  may  follow. 
If  the  tobacco  habit  is  given  up,  the  heart's  action  will 
in  time  become  normal  again. 


THE  BLOOD  AND   THE  CIRCULATION  123 

POINTS   FOR   SPECIAL  STUDY 

1 .  Blood  is  the  delivery  wagon  which  carries  oxygen  and 
nutriment  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  brings  back  carbon 
dioxide  and  other  waste. 

2.  We  should  not  hinder  the  circulation  of  the  blood  by 
wearing  tight  garters,  belts,  or  too  closely  fitting  clothing 
of  any  kind. 

3.  Exercise,  especially  out  of  doors  in  the  open  air,  aids 
in  keeping  the  circulation  healthy. 

4.  Fast  running,  rapid  bicycle  riding,  or  any  other  severe 
exercise  too  long  continued,  is   likely  to  injure  the   heart 
and  shorten  life. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  plasma? 

2.  Tell  about  the  red  corpuscles. 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  white  corpuscles? 

4.  Tell  all  you  can  about  blood  and  what  composes  it. 

5.  Describe  the  arteries  and  tell  their  use. 

6.  What  is  said  of  veins? 

7.  What  are  capillaries? 

8.  Tell  how  numerous  capillaries  are. 

9.  Tell  all  that  is  said  about  capillaries. 

10.  Tell  the  position  and  shape  of  the  heart. 

11.  How  many  divisions  or  chambers  has  the  heart,  and 
what  are  their  names? 

12.  What  is  said  of  the  openings  between  the  chambers 
of  the  heart? 

13.  What  covering  protects  the  heart? 

14.  Why  is  the  heart  called  an  involuntary  muscle? 

15.  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  heart. 

16.  Tell  the  course  of  the  blood  from  the  right  auricle 
of  the  heart  to  the  left  auricle. 


124         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

17.  Tell  the  course  of  the  blood  from  the  left  auricle  to 
the  right  auricle. 

18.  What  keeps  the  blood  from  flowing  backward? 

19.  What  and  where  is  the  aorta? 

20.  Where  does  the  change  in  the  color  of  the  blood  take 
place,  and  what  causes  it? 

21.  What  causes  pulse? 

22.  Where  is  the  best  place  to  find  the  pulse? 

23.  What  is  the  normal  pulse  rate  of  a  man?  of  a  woman? 

24.  What  does  the  doctor  judge  from  the  pulse,  and  why? 

25.  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  pulse. 

26.  About  how  many  times  does  the  heart  beat  in  an  hour? 
in  a  day? 

27.  What  rest  does  the  heart  have? 

28.  Why  must  it  keep  so  constantly  at  work? 

29.  About  how  much  blood  is  in  the  body  of  an  adult? 

30.  How  much  blood  may  the  heart  be  said  to  lift  or 
force  daily? 

31.  What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  blood?   on  the 
arteries?  on  the  heart? 

32.  What  is  the  effect  of  tobacco  on  the  heart? 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  STORY  OF  OUR  TELEGRAPH  SYSTEM 
THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES 

The  Nervous  System.  —  We  have  read  that  the  heart 
and  the  digestive  organs  work  without  our  willing  them 
to  do  so.  We  also  know  that  some  muscles  move  as 
our  will  directs.  Where  is  the  will?  How  are  its  com- 
mands carried  to  all  parts  of  the  body? 

The  will  or  mind  is  in  the  brain.  The  brain  tele- 
graphs or  sends  its  commands  to  all  parts  of  the  body 
over  string-like  fibers  called  nerves.  The  brain  also 
receives  messages  from  all  parts  of  the  body  through 
nerves.  The  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  nerves,  or  the 
nervous  system,  form  what  may  well  be  called  the  tele- 
graph system  of  the  body. 

The  Brain.  —  On  page  126  we  see  a  picture  of  the 
brain  as  it  would  appear  if  the  skull  that  protects  it 
were  removed.  It  is  composed  of  a  soft  substance, 
part  of  which  is  gray  in  color  and  part  white.  The 
surface  of  the  brain  is  not  smooth,  but  is  wrinkled 
or  has  ridges  called  convolutions  (kon-vo-lu'shunz). 
The  small  oval-looking  part  is  called  the  medulla  (me- 
dul'la),  or  bulb.  The  part  back  of  and  above  the 

125 


126 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


medulla  is  the  cerebellum  (ser'e-bel'liim).     The  large 
or  fore  part  is  the  cerebrum  (ser'e-brum). 

The  medulla,  or  bulb,  connects  both  the  cerebrum 
and  the  cerebellum  with  the  spinal  cord.     Nerves  that 


Cerebrum 


The  left  half  of  the  brain,  inner  surface  (Hebert). 

rise  in  the  medulla  control  the  greater  part  of  the  head 
and  many  of  the  internal  organs  of  the  body,  including 
the  heart  and  lungs. 

The  cerebellum  is  about  the  size  of  a  small  fist.     Its 
use  is  not  well  understood.     Animals  whose  cerebellum 


THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES  127 

has  been  injured  can  move  the  muscles.  They  can- 
not, however7  use  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  right  way 
all  the  muscles  necessary  for, such  an  act  as  walking. 
As  a  result,  they  are  uncertain  in  their  movements  and 
stagger  like  drunken  men.  From  this  it  is  thought 
that  the  cerebellum  causes  the  muscles  to  keep  a  proper 
amount  of  contraction  (kon-trak'shun),  and  that  it 
also  assists  in  having  them  move  together  in  the  same 
order. 

The  cerebrum  comprises  more  than  three-fourths  of 
the  brain.  A  groove  divides  its  upper  surface  into 
equal  parts  called  hemispheres  (hem'i-sferz).  It  is 
the  seat  of  all  thought  and  action.  It  also  receives  all 
the  messages  that  come  through  the  senses  of  touch, 
taste,  smell,  hearing,  and  seeing.  Without  a  cerebrum, 
we  could  not  think  or  will;  neither  would  any  of  our 
senses  be  of  use  to  us. 

Since  the  cerebrum  is  the  seat  of  the  nerves  control- 
ling motion,  a  hard  blow  on  the  top  of  the  head  causes 
one  to  fall  down.  The  skull  is  not  completely  grown 
together  until  a  child  is  two  years  old.  For  this  reason 
special  pains  should  be  taken  to  protect  babies  from 
blows  on  the  head  through  falls  or  any  other  cause. 
Such  accidents  have  killed  infants  or  crippled  them  in 
mind  or  body  for  life. 

The  cerebrum  of  an  animal  may  be  removed,  and 
though  its  sense  and  power  of  action  will  be  lost,  yet 


128 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


it  will  continue  to  live.  If  the  cerebellum  of  an  animal 
is  injured,  the  proper  control  of  its  muscles  is  lost;  but 
if  the  medulla  is  injured,  death 
follows  at  once,  for  breathing  stops. 
The  spinal  cord  extends  from  the 
medulla  to  the  base  of  the  spine. 
It  is  our  main  telegraph  line,  and 
branches  extend  from  it  to  all  parts 
of  the  body.  It  is  well  protected 
by  the  backbone  or  spinal  column. 
Notice  the  backbone  and  spinal 
cord  of  some  animal  from  which 
the  flesh  has  been  removed,  and 
you  will  get  a  fair  idea  of  how 
your  own  are  constructed. 

Care  of  the  Nervous  System.  - 
Since  all  the  muscles  and  organs 
of  the  body  are  controlled  by  the 
brain  through  the  nerves,  it  is 
most  important  that  the  nervous 
system  should  be  kept  strong  and 
healthy.  To  keep  in  such  condi- 
tion, it  must  be  supplied  with 
plenty  of  pure  air,  nourishing  food, 
and  rest. 

Simple,  well-cooked  food  affords 

The  backbone  or  spinal       .-,        -,  .   -,  c         .-, 

column  — side  view.       the  best  nourishment  for  the  ner- 


THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES 


129 


The  general  arrangement  of  the  nervous  system  (viewed  from  behind),  show- 
ing the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  chief  nerves  that  branch  from  it. 


130          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

vous  system,  for  good  digestion  and  good  nerves,  as 
a  rule,  go  together.  Notice  children  who  are  nervous 
and  sickly.  Often  you  will  find  that  they  eat  a  great 
deal  of  sweets,  and  are  not  regular  about  meals  or 
other  habits  which  affect  the  digestive  organs. 

Thought,  action,  and  direction  begin  in  the  brain. 
All  outside  impressions  (im-presh'unz)  come  through 
the  nerves  to  the  brain.  It  follows,  then,  that  the 
brain  and  the  nerves  are  never  fully  at  rest  except  in 
sleep.  On  this  account  it  is  most  essential  (es-sen'- 
shal)  that  every  one  should  have  regular  sleep,  and 
plenty  of  it. 

Sleep.  —  Little  babies  should  sleep  the  greater  part 
of  the  day.  Growing  children  need  from  fifteen  to  ten 
or  nine  hours  daily.  Adults  should  sleep  from  eight  to 
ten  hours.  If  one  goes  to  bed  at  an  early  hour  in  the 
evening,  it  is  safe  to  sleep  until  he  wakes  naturally 
(nat'ur-al-ly)  the  next  morning.  Even  if  it  be  more 
than  the  number  of  hours  that  a  person  of  his  age  is 
said  to  require,  nature  is  simply  giving  needed  rest 
to  his  nervous  system. 

Sometimes,  after  long-continued  bicycle  riding, 
running,  or  other  very  fast  or  hard  work,  one  cannot 
sleep  well  because  of  the  unusual  beating  of  the  heart. 
That  is  a  good  sign  that  such  efforts  are  too  severe  for 
the  nervous  system,  and  that  health  may  be  injured  by 
repeating  them.  Sleeplessness  is  an  unfavorable  sign 


THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES  131 

at  any  time  for  anybody,  and  one  that  should  never  be 
lightly  considered.  If  continued  more  than  a  night  or 
two,  a  competent  (kom'pe-tent)  physician  should  be 
at  once  consulted,  and  his  advice  carefully  followed. 
Indeed,  no  care  should  be  spared  to  get  back  the  habit 
of  natural,  restful  sleep. 

It  is  time  wasted  to  try  to  study  when  one  is  sleepy. 
Obey  nature's  command  to  sleep,  and  then  study  early 
in  the  morning.  It  is  even  more  unwise  to  think  it 
possible  to  get  along  with  very  little  sleep  just  because 
one  is  so  fortunate  as  to  be  strong.  The  ability  with 
which  both  mind  and  body  work  depends  upon  the 
state  of  the  brain  and  nerves.  If  they  are  well  nour- 
ished and  rested,  we  can  do  our  best;  if  they  are  poorly 
nourished  and  tired,  our  best  is  not  possible. 

Growth  in  Brain  Power.  —  The  seat  of  thought, 
memory,  and  reason  is  in  the  brain.  So  also  is  our 
power  of  motion.  Like  all  parts  of  the  body,  the  brain 
grows  strong  through  exercise.  Some  children  think 
that  they  can  never  learn  spelling,  geography,  his- 
tory, or  other  studies  requiring  memory.  Others  think 
that  they  cannot  master  studies  like  arithmetic,  that 
require  reasoning.  Time  and  again,  it  has  been  proved 
that,  as  a  rule,  if  one  keeps  trying  and  trying,  these 
faculties  (fak'ul-tiz)  of  the  brain  will  be  made  strong. 
Likewise,  a  person  may  be  very  awkward  and  unskillful 
at  certain  games  or  exercises.  Persevering,  frequent 


132          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

practice  will  also  bring  the  desired  gain  here,  if  one  has 
the  will  to  keep  trying.  In  both  cases,  success  depends 
upon  how  hard  one  tries,  and  whether  he  keeps  on  trying 
long  enough. 

Injuries  to  the  Brain.  —  Boys  sometimes  climb  to 
places  where  dangerous  falls  are  possible.  Often, 
too,  they  are  very  careless  about  throwing  stones  and 
other  hard  things.  A  hard  blow  on  the  head  or  spine 
has  often  caused  the  loss  of  the  power  to  think  or  to 
move,  and  has  even  resulted  in  instant  death.  No  boy 
would  risk  dangerous  falls  if  he  stopped  to  think  he 
might  thereby  be  made  a  cripple  or  an  idiot  for  life. 
Surely  no  one  would  throw  hard  things  in  play,  if  he 
knew  the  act  might  ruin  a  comrade's  success  and  hap- 
piness. 

Alcohol. — We  know  that  drunken  persons  stagger 
because  alcoholic  liquor  has  caused  the  brain  to  lose 
control  of  the  muscles.  In  a  previous  chapter,  we  also 
read  that  a  large  part  of  crime  and  insanity  is  due  to 
the  weakening  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  will  and  mind. 

Tobacco  and  Cigarettes.  —  Almost  every  one  is  made 
ill  by  tobacco  the  first  time  he  uses  it.  That  is  due  to 
its  poisonous  effect  upon  the  nervous  system.  Boys 
who  use  tobacco  have  both  their  minds  and  bodies 
stunted.  They  get  behind  in  school  work,  and  become 
pale  and  weak  in  appearance.  Often  their  wills  are  so 
affected  that  they  readily  drift  into  disgrace  and  crime. 


THE  BRAIN  AND   NERVES  133 

Cigarettes  are  boys'  deadly  enemy.  They  should  be 
labeled  "  Poison  for  Boys." 

While  preparing  for  athletic  contests,  college  boys 
are  not  allowed  to  use  either  alcoholic  drinks  or  tobacco. 
The  reason  is  that  they  can  work  their  best  longer  with- 
out them.  Any  one  who  wishes  always  to  have  the  best 
control  of  his  mind  and  muscles  will  never  use  either. 

Luther  Burbank,  the  greatest  expert  plant  grower, 
said  in  the  Sunday  School  Times:  "I  never  use 
tobacco  or  alcohol  in  any  form  and  rarely  coffee 
or  tea.  Such  stimulants  cannot  be  used  even  mildly 
in  work  requiring  strict  attention  and  definite  concen- 
tration (kon'sen-tra'shun)  of  the  mind. 

"  To  assist  me  in  the  work  of  budding,  work  that  is 
as  accurate  (ak'ku-rat)  and  exacting  as  watch-making, 
I  have  a  force  of  twenty  men.  Some  time  ago 
my  foreman  surprised  me  by  saying  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
men  I  had  to  discharge  because  they  could  not  do  this 
delicate  work,  turned  out  to  be  drinkers  or  smokers. 
These  men  are  able  to  do  the  rough  work  of  farming, 
but  call  budding  and  other  delicate  work  "  puttering  " 
(piit'ter-ing),  and  have  to  give  it  up  because  they  can- 
not control  their  nerve  force.  Even  men  who  smoke 
but  one  cigar  a  day  cannot  be  trusted  with  some  of  my 
most  delicate  work.  Cigarettes  are  even  more  damaging 
than  cigars,  and  their  use  by  boys  is  a  little  short  of 
criminal.  It  will  produce  in  them  the  same  results  that 


134         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


Mr.  Burbank  pollinating  the  blossoms  of  a  plum  tree.    He  thinks  that  using 
tobacco  unfits  men  to  do  their  best  work. 


THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES  135 

sand  placed  in  a  watch  will  produce  —  destruction 
(de-struk'shun). 

"  Several  of  my  young  acquaintances  (ak-kwant'- 
an-cez),  who  gave  promise  of  making  happy  and  useful 
citizens,  are  in  the  grave;  and  there  is  no  question 
whatever  but  that  cigarettes  were  the  cause.  No 
boy  living  would  commence  the  use  of  cigarettes,  if  he 
knew  what  a  useless,  soulless,  worthless  thing  they 
would  make  of  him." 

Cigarettes  produce  a  poison  that  ordinary  tobacco 
or  cigars  do  not  have.  The  combination  (kom'bi-na'- 
shun)  of  burning  paper  and  tobacco  produces  a  com- 
pound called  acrolein  (a-kro'le-in).  There  is  not  much 
of  this  compound,  but  in  what  there  is,  lies  the  great 
danger  of  the  cigarette. 

Thomas  A.  Edison,  the  great  inventor  and  chemist, 
says:  "  Acrolein  is  one  of  the  most  terrible  drugs  in 
its  effects  upon  the  human  body.  The  burning  of 
ordinary  cigarette  paper  always  produces  acrolein. 
That  is  what  makes  the  smoke  so  irritating  (ir'ri-tat- 
ing).  I  really  believe  that  it  often  makes  boys  insane. 
We  sometimes  develop  acrolein  in  the  experiments  with 
glycerine  in  my  laboratory  (lab'6-ra-to-ry).  One 
whiff  of  it  from  the  oven  drove  one  of  my  assistants  out 
of  the  building,  the  other  day.  I  can  hardly  make  too 
great  the  dangerous  nature  of  acrolein;  yet  that  is  what 
a  man  or  boy  is  dealing  with  every  time  he  smokes  a 
cigarette." 


136          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

POINTS   FOR   SPECIAL    STUDY 

1.  The  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  nerves  make  up  the  nervous 
system. 

2.  The  seat  of  all  thought  and  action  is  in  the  brain. 
The  commands  of  the  brain  are  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  body 
through  the  nerves.     All  impressions  received  through  the 
five  senses  reach  the  brain  by  way  of  the  nerves. 

3.  A  hard  blow  on  the  head  may  cripple  one's  mind  or 
body  for  life.     A  blow  on  the  backbone  may  also  cause  seri- 
ous injury.     Children's  brains  are  not  fully  protected  by 
the  skull  until  they  are  about  two  years  old.     For  this 
reason,  special  pains  should  be  taken  to  keep  their  heads 
from  injury. 

4.  Pure  air,  nourishing  food,  and  plentiful  sleep  are  all 
essential  to  a  healthy  nervous  system. 

5.  Sleeplessness  is  a  sign  of  disordered  health  that  should 
always  arouse  much  concern.     No  pains  should  be  spared 
to  get  back  the  habit  of  natural,  restful  sleep  as  soon  as 
possible. 

6.  Memory,  reason,  and  quickness  of  thought  and  action, 
are  all  qualities  that  can  be  cultivated  and  strengthened 
by  earnest,  persevering  practice;    for  the  brain,  like  other 
parts  of  the  body,  is  made  strong  by  exercise. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  is  the  will  or  mind? 

2.  Over  what  does  the  brain  send  its  commands  to  other 
parts  of  the  body,  and  through  what  does  it  receive  messages? 

3.  What  makes  up  the  nervous  system? 

4.  Tell  of  what  kind  of  substance  the  brain  is  composed, 
and  give  the  colors  of  this  substance. 

5.  What  is  said  of  the  surface  of  the  brain? 


THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES  137 

6.  Mention  the  three  parts  of  the  brain. 

7.  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  brain. 

8.  Describe:  (a)  the  medulla;  (6)  the  cerebellum;  (c)  the 
cerebrum,  and  tell  the  use  of  each. 

9.  If  the  cerebrum  of  an  animal  is  removed,  what  is  the 
effect? 

10.  What  effect  on  an  animal  is  caused  by  an  injury  to 
the  cerebellum?  to  the  medulla? 

11.  Tell  what  is  said  of  the  spinal  cord. 

12.  With  what  must  the  body  be  supplied  if  the  nervous 
system  is  kept  strong  and  healthy? 

13.  What  kind  of  food  furnishes  the  best  nourishment  for 
the  nerves? 

14.  What  is  often  noticed  about  the  habits  of  children 
who  are  nervous  and  sickly? 

15.  How  much  should  little  babies  sleep?  growing  chil- 
dren? adults? 

16.  Why  should  continued  sleeplessness  cause  much  con- 
cern? 

17.  Tell  why  it  is  time  wasted  to  try  to  study  when  one 
is  sleepy. 

18.  Why  is  it  unwise  to  think  one  can  get  along  with 
but  little  sleep  if  he  is  strong? 

19.  Tell  how  memory,  reason,  and  quickness,  or  graceful- 
ness of  action  may  be  improved. 

20.  Why  should  hard  blows  on  the  head  or  spine  be 
avoided? 

21.  Why  is  special  care  necessary  to  protect  the  head  of 
a  baby? 

22.  Tell  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  brain. 

23.  Why  does  tobacco  make  ill  one  who  uses  it  for  the 
first  time?     Tell  what  is  said  of  Burbank;  of  Edison. 

24.  Why  should  cigarettes  be  labeled  "  Poison  for  Boys  "  ? 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

THE  TEETH 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  learned  how  important  it  is 
to  masticate  our  food  thoroughly.  Good  teeth  are 
necessary  for  thorough  mastication.  Clean,  regular 
teeth  add  much  to  any  person's  good  appearance. 
Teeth  are  also  an  aid  in  speaking  distinctly.  For 
these  and  other  reasons,  we  should  always  take  the  very 
best  care  of  these  useful  tools. 

Structure  of  a  Tooth.  -  -  The  picture  on  this  page 
shows  the  chief  parts  of  a  tooth.  The  part  outside  the 
gum  is  called  the  crown.  The  roots  are  the  part  within 
the  gum.  Both  the  crown  and  the  roots  are  hollow. 

Within  the  hollow  space  is  the 
pulp,  which  contains  the  blood 
De/?t//?e        vessels  and  nerve.     The  out- 
-     _  _  side  of   the  crown  is  enamel, 

V  m- Cement        which  ig  yery   hard     Under_ 

showing  thl  structure  of  a  tooth   neath  the  enamel    is  dentine, 
(zinns).  which    is    much    softer   than 

enamel,  and  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  crown. 

138 


THE   TEETH 


139 


Temporary  and  Permanent  Teeth.  -  -  Two  different 
sets  of  teeth  develop  in  our  mouths.  The  milk  teeth, 
or  temporary  set,  come  first.  They  are  twenty  in 
number,  —  ten  in  each  jaw.  These  are  followed  by  a 
second  or  permanent  set.  In  this  set  there  are  thirty- 


VpMier 

Temporary  and  permanent  teeth. 

two  teeth,  sixteen  in  each  jaw.  The  above  picture 
shows  both  the  temporary  and  permanent  sets.  Notice 
that  the  front  teeth  are  sharp  and  made  for  tearing 
or  cutting,  while  the  back  teeth  are  broader  and  made 
for  grinding.  It  can  also  be  seen  that  the  teeth  in  the 
lower  jaw  are  like  those  having  the  same  number  in  the 
upper  jaw. 

Decay  of  Teeth.  --The  way  to  keep  our  teeth  white 
and  healthy  is  to  prevent  decay.  But  can  children 
learn  to  do  this?  Indeed  they  can,  for  the  cause  is 


140          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


easily  understood,  and  may  be,  to  a  large  degree,  pre- 
vented. The  hard  enamel  of  teeth  is  composed  of  lime 
and  other  minerals.  Food,  decaying  in  the  mouth, 
-  produces  an  acid  which  dissolves  enamel. 
The  way  to  prevent  our  teeth  from  de- 
caying, is  to  keep  them  free  from  small 
particles  of  food. 

Cleaning  Teeth.  —  Of  course,  the  way 
to  do  this,  is  to  clean  the  teeth  thoroughly 
every  day.  Merely  using  a  tooth  brush 
will  not  answer,  for  small  bits  of  food  will 
remain  between  the  teeth,  even  after  the 
most  careful  brushing.  The  following  is 
an  excellent  way  to  get  the  teeth  well 
freed  from  food. 

First  rinse  the  mouth  with  warm  water. 
Then  crowd  dental  floss  between  all  of  the  teeth  in 
both  jaws  to  force  out  food  particles,  and  follow  this 
with  another  rinsing.  Afterward  use  a  tooth  brush, 
being  careful  to  move  it  up  and  down  instead  of  cross- 
wise. Moving  the  brush  crosswise  is  likely  to  lodge 
food  between  the  teeth,  instead  of  getting  it  out.  Now 
rinse  the  mouth  again,  and  the  teeth  should  be  well 
freed  from  food.  Last  of  all,  a  good  tooth  powder 
should  be  used. 

Dental  Floss.  —  As  a  rule,  the  teeth  cannot  be  well 
freed  from  food  without  using  dental  floss.     The  latter 


The  best  tooth 
brush. 


THE  TEETH  141 

is  really  of  greater  value  than  the  tooth  brush.     If 

one  cannot  have  both,  keep  supplied  with  the  dental 

floss    by    all    means.     Rinsing    with 

water,  using  dental  floss,  rinsing  again, 

and  afterward  rubbing  the  teeth  with 

a  cotton  cloth  will  get  good  results.     It 

is  well  to  clean  the  teeth  after  each 

meal;  but  often  this  is  not  convenient. 

The  best  plan,  then,  is  to  rinse  the  teeth   SP°01  of  dental  floss- 

after  each  meal,  and  clean  them  thoroughly  just  before 

going  to  bed.     If  all  food  particles  are  removed  just 

before  retiring,  there  will  be  no  chance  for  acid  to 

form  from  decaying  food  during  the  long  hours  of  sleep. 

On  this  account,  upon  going  to  bed  is  the  very  best 

time  to  clean  the  teeth. 

Object  of  cleaning  Teeth.  —  Do  not  think  that  the 
object  of  cleaning  the  teeth  is  to  nicely  polish  the  few 
that  are  in  front.  The  chief  aim  is  to  remove  all  food 
particles  from  the  mouth.  No  matter  how  well  one 
may  polish  the  front  teeth,  acid  produced  by  decaying 
food  between  the  back  teeth,  will  cause  decay  there. 
This  may  spread  from  tooth  to  tooth  until  the  front 
ones  also  become  infected.  Besides,  the  principal  use 
of  teeth  is  to  aid  in  preparing  food  for  digestion.  In 
this  most  important  work,  the  back  teeth  are  just  as 
useful  as  those  in  front. 

Some  people  think  it  is  not  necessaiy  to  clean  the  first 


142          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

or  temporary  set  of  teeth,  since  they  last  but  a  few 
years.  Such  an  idea  is  also  mistaken.  Many  poor 
sets  of  permanent  teeth  and  much  ill  health  have  very 
likely  been  caused  by  failure  to  take  good  care  of  the 
first  set.  Notice  the  picture  on  page  139.  It  can  be 
seen  that  the  last  three  teeth  on  either  side  of  both 
jaws  in  the  permanent  set  are  not  in  the  temporary 
set.  These  broad  teeth  are  called  molars. 

The  First  Permanent  Molars. — The  four  molars 
marked  1  are  among  the  first  permanent  teeth  to  arrive. 
They  are  spoken  of  as  sixth  year  molars  because  they 
frequently  appear  in  the  mouth  when  one  is  about  six 
years  old.  Often  these  are  full  grown  before  many  of 
the  temporary  set  are  removed.  If  the  first  set  are 
allowed  to  decay,  these  molars  of  the  second  set  may 
also  become  diseased,  and  later  infect  others  of  the 
permanent  teeth.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years,  the 
roots  of  the  first  teeth  are  absorbed  by  the  blood,  and 
the  growing  peVmanent  teeth  force  their  crowns  loose 
from  the  gum.  Nevertheless,  while  in  the  mouth,  all 
temporary  teeth  should  be  kept  clean  and  healthy. 

Regular  Visits  to  the  Dentist.  —  Decay  causes  cavities 
(kav'i-tiz)  in  teeth,  and  in  spite  of  the  most  careful 
cleaning  these  will  often  get  started.  For  this  reason, 
one  should  have  his  teeth  examined  and  cleaned  by  a 
dentist  regularly  twice  a  year,  from  the  age  of  four  at 
the  latest.  A  small  cavity  weakens  a  tooth  very  little 


THE  TEETH  143 

and  can  usually  be  filled  without  pain.  The  larger  a 
cavity  becomes,  the  more  it  weakens  the  tooth,  and  the 
nearer  it  gets  to  the  nerve,  —  hence  the  more  pain  the 
work  of  filling  is  likely  to  cause.  With  his  tools,  the 
dentist  can  remove  tartar,  a  harmful  substance,  that 
often  gathers  on  teeth  and  cannot  be  removed  by 
brushing.  It  is  claimed  that  cavities  may  be  entirely 
prevented  by  a  visit  to  the  dentist  once  a  month. 

Food  and  the  Teeth.  -  -  To  keep  healthy,  teeth  must 
also  receive  the  right  kind  of  nutriment  from  the  blood. 
Milk,  eggs,  breakfast  foods,  bread,  and  vegetables 
contain  lime  and  other  good  teeth-building  materials. 
Much  candy  and  other  sweets  should  not  be  eaten. 

Need  for  Exercise.  —  We  know  that  the  blood  carries 
nutriment  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  Like  other  parts, 
the  teeth  must  be  exercised  in  order  to  have  a  good  cir- 
culation of  blood.  One  who  lives  upon  liquids  and 
such  soft  foods  as  pie  and  cake,  will  have  poor  teeth, 
because  so  little  chewing  is  necessary  in  eating  them. 
Crust,  toast,  and  any  food  that  requires  vigorous  chew- 
ing help  to  keep  teeth  healthy  by  giving  them  vigorous 
exercise.  Other  things  being  equal,  a  food  that  com- 
pels vigorous  exercise  of  the  teeth  should  be  chosen 
instead  of  one  that  does  not,  both  for  the  sake  of  masti- 
cation and  the  health  of  the  teeth. 

How  Teeth  are  Injured.  —  Do  not  pick  the  teeth  with 
pins  or  anything  else  made  of  metal.  Do  not  use  them 


144         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

to  crack  nuts  or  other  things  harder  than  food.  Do 
not  bite  thread  or  string.  Do  not  immediatefy  (Im- 

me'di-at-ly)  follow 
hot  drinks  or  food 
with  cold,  or  cold 
with  hot.  Do  not 
take  medicines  con- 
taining iron  or  acid 
except  through  a 
tube.  Any  of  these 

' '  Hand-I-Hold  Babe  Hit.' ' 
Device  to  prevent  thumb  sucking.  practices    may    injure 

the  hard  enamel,  thus  opening  a  path  for  decay.  Do 
not  smoke  or  chew  tobacco,  for  it  discolors  teeth  and 
makes  them  less  beautiful. 


Showing  the  teeth  before  and  after  straightening. 
(Loaned  by  Dr.  Herbert  A.  Pullen.) 

Making  Teeth  Regular.  —  Regular  teeth  are  more 
beautiful  than  those  that  are  crowded  out  of  position. 


THE  TEETH  145 

Often  the  permanent  teeth  are  crowded  because  the 
jaws  do  not  grow  large  enough.  This  lack  of  growth 
is  caused  partly  by  not  chewing  the  food  enough,  and 
by  eating  too  much  soft  foods  that  do  not  give  the 
teeth  the  exercise  they  need.  Sometimes  permanent 
teeth  are  not  regular,  because  the  temporary  ones  were 
removed  too  soon.  While  teething,  children  are  often 
allowed  to  constantly  suck  a  thumb  or  a  "pacifier." 
This  should  not  be  allowed,  since  it  sometimes  causes 
an  ill-shaped  mouth  and  irregular  teeth.  Devices  that 
will  prevent  children  from  sucking  their  thumbs  can 
be  bought  at  slight  expense.  Continuous  mouth 
breathing  and  constant  sucking  in  of  the  lower  lip  also 
cause  the  same  defects,  and  should  not  be  allowed. 


Portrait  of  girl  before  and  after  teeth  were  straightened, 
(Loaned  by  Dr.  Herbert  A.  Pullen.) 

The  science  of  making  irregular  teeth  more  regular 
is  called  orthodontia  (6r-th6-d6n'sha).     A  specialist  in 


146          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

orthodontia  can  greatly  improve  the  looks  of  an  irreg- 
ular set  of  teeth.  Though  the  work  requires  many 
short  visits  and  takes  some  time,  it  is  not  painful. 
Such  a  change  often  adds  so  much  to  the  beauty  of 
the  mouth  and  teeth  that  one  feels  well  repaid  for  the 
expense  and  trouble. 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  There  are  twenty  teeth  in  the  temporary  set  and 
thirty-two  in  the  permanent  set.     The  latter  contain  twelve 
molars  not  found  in  the  former. 

2.  Enamel  is  the  protecting  armor  of  teeth.     Decay  of 
Heeth  is  caused  by  the  acid  from  decaying  food  in  the  mouth 

dissolving  some  of  the  enamel.  One  may  largely  prevent 
decay  of  teeth  by  keeping  the  mouth  free  from  food  particles. 

3.  The  chief  aim  in  cleaning  teeth  should  be  to  remove 
all  substances  that  may  cause  decay  in  the  mouth.     Dental 
floss  is  very  useful  in  teeth  cleaning,  since  with  it,  food  that 
has  lodged  between  the  teeth  may  be  crowded  out. 

4.  One  should  have   his    teeth  examined    and   cleaned 
by  a  dentist,  regularly  twice  a  year,  at  least  from  the  time 
he  is  four  years  old,  and  before,  if  necessary.     Any  cavities 
may  be  filled  at  these  times.     The  temporary  teeth  should 
be  cleaned  and  filled  as  carefully  as  the  permanent  set. 

5.  Irregular  teeth   result  from   constantly  sucking  the 
thumb,  sucking  in  the  lower  lip,  continuous  mouth  breath- 
ing, and  other  causes.     The  appearance  of  an  irregular  set  of 
teeth  can  be  greatly  improved  by  a  specialist. 


THE   TEETH  147 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  three  ways  in  which  the  teeth  are  useful. 

2.  What  part  of  a  tooth  is  the  crown? 

3.  Where  are  the  roots  of  a  tooth? 

4.  What  is  enamel?  dentine? 

5.  Where  are  the  blood  vessels  and  the  nerve  of  a  tooth? 

6.  How  many  teeth  in  the  temporary  set?  in  the  per- 
manent set? 

7.  What  causes  teeth  to  decay? 

8.  Tell  three  important  things  necessary  to  do  in  clean- 
ing your  teeth. 

9.  Explain  why  dental  floss  is  of  great  value  in  teeth 
cleaning. 

10.  When  is  the  very  best  time  of  day  to  clean  the  teeth, 
and  why? 

11.  Why  is  it  unwise  merely  to  polish  the  front  teeth? 

12.  Tell  why  the  temporary  teeth  should  be  kept  clean 
and  healthy. 

13.  What  are  the  "  sixth  year  molars,"  and  why  do  they 
often  become  diseased? 

14.  Why  should  one  have  his  teeth  examined  by  a  dentist 
at  least  twice  a  year? 

15.  What  kind  of  food  must  be  furnished  teeth  to  keep 
them  healthy? 

16.  Of  what  foods  will  those  wishing  to  have  good  teeth 
eat  but  little? 

17.  Why  do  teeth  need  vigorous  exercise,  and  what  foods 
furnish  it? 

18.  Mention  several  practices  likely  to  injure  the  enamel 
of  teeth. 

19.  Tell  some  of  the  causes  of  irregular  teeth. 

20.  How  may  the  appearance  of  an  irregular  set  of  teeth 
be  improved? 


CHAPTER  XXII 


THE    EYES 

Usefulness  of  the  Eyes.  —  Few  realize  how  much  we 
have  to  depend  upon  our  eyes.  In  dressing,  eating, 
working,  playing,  —  in  fact,  in  nearly  everything,  they 
guide  our  movements  and  let  in  correct  ideas  of  the 
outside  world  to  the  brain.  How  much  they  add  to 

our  pleasure  and 
usefulness,  only 
those  who  have 
become  blind  can 
tell.  How  greatly 
good  sight  in- 
creases our  ability 
in  study  and  work, 
and  our  skill  and 
activity  in  play, 
those  with  weak 
eyes  well  know. 
Much  of  our  sue- 


A  section  through  the  eyeball. 


cess  and  happiness  in  life  will  depend  upon  keeping 
good  sight.  This  is  a  most  important  fact  that 
cannot  be  realized  too  soon.  Another  is  that  no 
reader  of  this  book  is  too  young  to  form  the  habit 

148 


THE  EYES  149 

of  doing  several  things  that  will  help  to  favor  and 
to  protect  his  eyes.  None  should  be  so  unwise  as  to 
keep  from  doing  some  things  that  will  surely  weaken 
their  power  of  seeing. 

The  Eye  and  the  Camera.  —  Perhaps  we  may  own  a 
camera.     If  not,  we  very  likely  have  seen  some  one 


Learning  to  use  the  camera. 

else  use  one.  We  know  that  in  taking  a  picture  a 
spring  is  touched  that,  for  a  second  or  more,  lets  rays 
of  light  travel  through  a  glass  lens  to  a  sensitive  plate 
or  film  behind  it.  If  the  one  taking  the  picture  is  in 
such  a  position  that  the  rays  of  light  come  to  a  focus 
(fo'kus)  upon  the  sensitive  plate  or  film,  a  clear  picture 
can  be  developed;  if  not,  the  picture  will  be  blurred 
and  not  distinct. 


150          THE  BUILDING  AND   CAEE  OF  THE  BODY 

In  some  respects,  our  eyes  are  like  a  camera.  The 
little  round  hole  in  the  center  of  the  eye,  called  the 
pupil,  becomes  larger  or  smaller  according  to  the  bright- 
ness of  the  light  in  which  what  we  are  looking  at  hap- 
pens to  be.  The  rays  of  light  from  this  pass  through 
the  eyeball,  which  corresponds  to  the  glass  lens  of  the 
camera,  and  are  focused  upon  the  retina  (ret'i-na),  the 
innermost  coat  of  the  eyeball.  Pictures  made  by  these 
rays  upon  the  retina  are  at  once  carried  through  the 
optic  nerve  to  the  brain. 

Use  of  the  Muscles  of  the  Eye.  —  In  learning  to  use 
a  camera,  films  are  often  blurred  because  the  rays  of 
light  did  not  come  to  a  focus  upon  the  sensitive  plate  or 
film.  In  order  to  have  a  clear  picture  through  our  eyes, 


Showing  how  the  eyeball  brings  the  rays  of  light  from  an 
object  to  a  focus  on  the  retina. 


the  rays  of  light  from  the  object  at  which  we  are  look- 
ing must  be  focused  upon  the  retina.  In  properly 
formed  eyes,  some  wonderful  little  muscles  so  change 
the  form  of  the  eyeball  that  it  brings  the  rays  of  light 
to  the  right  focus. 


THE  EYES  151 

Rays  of  light  from  a  distance  come  to  a  focus  upon 
the  retina  of  properly  formed  eyes  with  little  or  no 
effort  of  the  muscles.  The  nearer  and  the  smaller  the 
object  we  are  looking  at,  the  harder  work  the  muscles 
of  the  eye  have  in  so  changing  the  form  of  the  eyeball 
as  to  bring  the  incoming  rays  to  a  focus.  It  also  re- 
quires effort  of  these  muscles  to  make  both  eyes  focus 
a  near  object  at  the  same  time. 

Resting  the  Eyes.  —  From  these  facts  we  can  learn 
two  important  truths.  First,  that  such  close  work  as 
reading  and  sewing  costs  the  muscles  of  the  eyes  severe 
effort.  Second,  that  looking  at  distant  objects  causes 
the  muscles  of  the  eyes  little  or  no  effort.  When  our 
eyes  feel  uncomfortable,  we  can  often  make  them  all 
right  again  by  doing  no  reading  and  other  close  work 
for  a  few  hours  or  days.  While  doing  close  work,  we 
may  easily  rest  our  eyes  .by  once  in  a  while  gazing  off 
at  distant  objects,  if  only  for  a  few  seconds. 

In  doing  close  work,  we  should  always  have  plenty 
of  light.  In  most  rooms,  it  is  far  better  to  sit  near  the 
windows  when  we  are  reading.  Artificial  (ar'ti-fish'al) 
light  is  always  more  trying  to  the  eyes  than  daylight. 
When  doing  close  work,  do  not  sit  facing  the  light. 
The  light  should  fall  on  the  work  from  above  and  be- 
hind ;  when  one  is  writing  it  should  come  over  the  left 
shoulder,  if  he  is  right  handed.  Often  simply  giving 
up  study  and  other  close  work  at  evening  for  a  time 


152 


THE  BUILDING   AND   CAKE  OF  THE  BODY 


will  restore  the  eyes  to  good  condition.  Sleep  during 
the  hours  of  darkness  is  one  of  the  very  best  remedies 

for  eye  weakness.  If 
the  eyes  feel  strained, 
study  can  be  done 
with  much  better  re- 
sults by  early  morn- 
ing light. 

Favoring  the  Eyes. 
-We  should  not  do 
close  work  with  the 
eyes  by  twilight  or 
any  other  changing 
light.  It  is  too  trying 
for  the  eyes,  since  the 

Correct  position  for  reading.  changing    light    makes 

harder  work  for  the  muscles,  and  the  light  often  be- 
comes entirely  insufficient  (in'suf-fish'ent)  before  we 
realize  it.  Reading  while  traveling  in  a  car,  or  any 
other  moving  vehicle,  is  also  very  trying.  The  jarring 
caused  by  the  motion  of  the  car  keeps -constantly 
changing  the  position  of  the  paper,  and  so  the  muscles 
of  the  eyes  must  keep  working  to  change  the  focus. 

Anything  we  are  reading  should  not  lie  flat  upon  the 
desk  or  in  our  laps.  Try  reading  a  page  or  more  with 
the  book  flat,  and  then  hold  it  up  in  a  slanting  or  ver- 
tical position.  The  gain  in  vision  will  be  so  great  that 


THE  EYES  153 

you  will  surely  see  the  wisdom  of  always  favoring  your 
eyes  in  this  way. 

Sit  in  an  erect  position  while  reading,  for  stooping 
makes  harder  work  for  the  muscles  and  also  interferes 
with  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Besides,  trying  to 
see  in  a  dim  light  and  leaning  the  head  forward  while 
reading,  are  likely  to  cause  a  change  in  the  shape  of  the 
eyeball  and  produce  nearsightedness  (ner-slt'ed-nes). 

Do  not  read  while  lying  down,  for  this  practice  is 
very  trying  to  the  eyes.  Long  or  severe  illness  of  any 
kind  weakens  the  muscles  of  the  eyes  as  well  as  those 
of  the  rest  of  the  body.  Therefore  one  should  read 
little  or  none  while  recovering  from  severe  illness. 
The  eyes  of  delicate  children  are  usually  weak.  On 
this  account  they  should  study  or  read  but  very  little. 
Staying  out  of  school  a  few  months  or  even  years  to  get 
strong  is  far  better,  in  the  end,  than  to  go  to  school  with 
weakened  body  and  eyes,  for  fear  of  getting  behind 
other  children  of  the  same  age.  Little  children  should 
use  their  eyes  very  little  for  close  work. 

The  page  we  are  reading  should  not  be  held  any  nearer 
than  is  necessary  to  make  the  print  distinct  and  clear. 
Print  that  cannot  be  readily  made  out  at  a  distance 
of  eighteen  inches,  is  too  small  to  be  read  continuously. 
Do  not  read  books  having  white  glazed  paper,  on  ac- 
count of  the  glare.  Books  should  be  selected  that  have 
plenty  of  space  between  both  words  and  lines.  This 


154          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

prevents  the  words  or  lines  from  seeming  to  run  together 
as  one  reads. 

When  the  eyes  feel  uncomfortable,  they  should  not 
be  rubbed  with  the  hands,  since  harmful  bacteria  may 
get  into  them  in  this  way.  Bathe  the  eyes  in  cool  water, 
and  dry  them  with  a  clean  cloth.  Do  not  wipe  your 
face  on  a  public  towel.  Some  one  who  previously 
used  the  towel,  may  have  had  eye  disease,  and  you 
may  get  the  bacteria  from  the  towel.  A  person  having 
a  discharge  of  any  kind  from  the  eye,  should  not  leave 
his  towel  where  others  may  chance  to  use  it. 

Cinders  in  the  Eye. --The  eye  is  so  sensitive  that 
cinders  or  tiny  particles  of  any  solid  will  cause  great  dis- 
comfort if  they  get  inside.  The  eyelids  and  their 
lashes  usually  protect  from  these  by  closing,  even  with- 
out our  willing  them  to  do  so,  whenever  anything 
injurious  comes  toward  them.  Sometimes,  however, 
cinders  and  other  substances  get  by  these  useful  guards. 
If  we  wait  a  moment,  water  from  the  tear  glands  will 
often  wash  such  particles  down  to  the  lower  lid,  from 
which  they  may  be  readily  removed.  Pulling  the  upper 
lid  down  over  the  lower,  and  holding  it  there,  will  often 
help  the  tears  in  this  process. 

If  the  particle  is  too  firmly  fixed  to  be  removed  in 
this  way,  an  older  person  or  a  physician  should  be 
secured  to  take  it  out  very  soon,  since  severe  injury,  as 
well  as  discomfort,  may  follow,  if  it  is  allowed  to  re- 


THE  EYES  155 

main  unduly  long.  Any  liquid  containing  acid,  lime, 
or  other  alkali,  or  wood  alcohol  may  severely  injure  the 
eye.  If,  by  any  mischance,  such  liquids  get  into  the 
eye,  a  physician  should  be  visited  at  once. 

Infants'  Eyes.  • —  Special  pains  should  be  taken  to 
protect  the  eyes  of  baby  brothers  and  sisters.  They 
should  not  be  exposed  to  bright  light  of  any  kind. 
When  taken  out  for  a  ride,  their  eyes  should  be  most 
carefully  shaded  from  the  sun.  If,  soon  after  birth, 
there  happens  to  be  a  discharge  from  the  little  one's 
eyes,  a  physician  or  nurse  should  attend  until  the 
trouble  is  cured.  Many  cases  of  both  weak  sight  and 
blindness  have  been  caused  by  lack  of  attention  to 
a  discharge  from  one  or  both  eyes  when  the  person 
was  a  little  baby. 

Nearsightedness.  —  It  is  great  good  fortune  to  be 
born  with  perfectly  formed  eyes.  Many  are  not.  In 
some  persons,  the  eyeball  is  so  deep  that  the  rays  of 
light  come  to  a  focus  before  reaching  the  retina.  This 
is  called  nearsightedness,  since  persons  with  such  eyes 
can  see  near  objects  better  than  at  a  distance.  Lean- 
ing the  head  forward  while  reading,  and  reading  too 
much  by  dim  light,  sometimes  bring  on  nearsightedness 
by  changing  the  form  of  the  eyeball.  This  is  a  most 
excellent  reason  for  avoiding  both  of  these  habits. 

Farsightedness  and  Astigmatism.  —  The  eyeballs  of 
some  persons  are  so  shallow  that  the  rays  of  light  reach 


156          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

the  retina  before  being  focused.  This  defect  is  called 
farsightedness  (far'sit-ed-nes)  because  such  eyes  can  see 
distant  objects  better  than  those  near  by.  Sometimes 
the  eyeball  is  so  curved  that  it  cannot  see  horizontal 
and  vertical  lines  equally  well.  Since  letters  are  made 
up  of  both  horizontal  and  vertical  lines,  this  defect, 
which  is  called  astigmatism  (a-stig'ma-tizm),  makes 
reading  and  study  more  difficult. 

Squint  or  Cross-eye.  —  When  one  or  both  eyes  re- 
main all  of  the  time  turned  in  toward  the  nose,  the 
condition  is  called  cross-eye.  This  is  caused  by  far- 
sight or  some  other  defect  too  severely  taxing  some 
muscles  of  the  eye.  In  the  beginning,  cross-eye  may 
sometimes  be  cured  by  glasses.  If  the  trouble  is  too 
far  advanced  for  glasses  to  remedy  it,  the  oculist 
(ok'u-list)  can  do  so  by  a  slight  operation.  The  dif- 
ficulty may  return  afterward,  if  glasses  are  not  worn 
to  correct  the  improper  form  of  the  eye.  It  is  very 
important  to  have  cross-eye  corrected,  for,  in  that  con- 
dition, it  is  difficult  to  use  both  eyes  at  the  same  time. 
For  this  reason,  the  eye  affected  may  in  time  lose  its 
power  of  accurate  vision. 

Nearsightedness,  farsightedness,  and  astigmatism  can 
all  be  largely  overcome  by  having  an  oculist  pre- 
scribe glasses  that  will  correct  the  form  of  the  eyeball. 
The  eyes  of  every  healthy  child  ought  easily  to  dis- 
tinguish the  leaves  of  the  trees,  the  colors  of  the  sky, 


THE  EYES  157 

and  the  faces  of  friends  at  a  distance  on  the  street. 
They  ought  also  to  readily  make  out  writing  on  the 
blackboard  in  the  schoolroom,  and  to  read  good  print 
from  a  book  without  discomfort. 

Glasses.  —  If  one  is  healthy  and  strong,  and  his  eyes 
fail  to  do  this,  he  should  not  be  satisfied  until  they  have 
been  examined  by  a  competent  oculist.  If  glasses  are 
prescribed,  he  should  wear  them  just  as  directed  by 
the  doctor.  They  will  be  some  bother,  of  course;  but 
what  is  that  compared  with  the  great  gain  in  school 
work  and  skill  in  play  that  is  sure  to  follow?  Both 
the  oculist  and  the  spectacles  may  cost  several  dollars. 
If,  however,  a  person  with  poor  vision  could,  but  for 
a  moment,  fully  realize  the  gain  in  ability  and  happi- 
ness that  glasses  might  bring,  he  would  gladly  work  his 
best  for  months  to  earn  them. 

POINTS  FOR  SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  Strong  and  accurate  eyesight  is  one  of  the  best  aids 
to  happiness  and  success  in  life. 

2.  Rest  from  reading,  sewing,  and  other  close  work  for 
a  few  days  will  often  make  tired  eyes  strong  again.     Even 
rest  from  close  work  by  artificial  light  for  a  week  or  two  will 
sometimes  have  the  same  result, 

3.  Seven  Ways  to  Favor  the  Eyes:  — 

(a)  Always  have  plenty  of  light  for  reading  and  other 

close  work. 
(6)  Have  the  light  come  from  behind  and  over  the  left 

shoulder. 


158         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

(c)  Look  for  a  few  seconds  at  distant  objects  now  and 

then  while  reading  or  studying. 

(d)  Always  sit  erect  and  hold  the  head  up  while  doing 

close  work. 

(e)  Read  only  books  that  have  good  print  with  plenty 

of  space  between  the  words  and  lines. 
(/)  Hold  anything  from  which  you  are  reading,  up 

toward  a  level  with  the  eye. 
(gr)   Bathe  the  eyes  in  cool  water  after  rising  each 

morning. 

4.    Ten  Things  not  to  do  with  the  Eyes:  — 
(a)  Never  do  close  work  facing  the  light. 
(6)  Do  not  look  steadily  at  the  sun  or  any  other  bright 

light. 

(c)  Do  not  do  close  work  by  twilight  or  other  changing 

light. 

(d)  Do  not  let  a  book  or  paper  you  are  reading  lie  flat 

upon  a  table  or  desk. 

(e)  Do  not  read  while  lying  down. 

(/)  Do  not  use  the  eyes  for  close  work  when  the  rest 
of  the  body  is  weakened  by  illness. 

(g)  Do  not  hold  a  book  or  paper  too  near  the  eyes. 

(h)  Do  not  rub  the  eyes. 

(i)  Do  not  wipe  your  face  on  a  public  towel. 

(j)  Do  not  allow  anything  that  causes  discomfort  to 
remain  in  the  eye. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  part  of  the  eye  corresponds  to  the  little  round 
hole  which  lets  light  into  a  camera? 

2.  To  what  part  of  a  camera  does  the  eyeball  correspond? 

3.  What  part  of  the  eye  corresponds  to  the  sensitive  plate 
or  film  of  the  camera? 


THE  EYES  159 

4.  What  nerve  connects  the  eye  with  the  brain? 

5.  Why  are  the  plates  or  films  of  a  camera  often  blurred 
by  one  who  is  just  learning  to  use  it? 

6.  What  makes  the  eyeball  properly  focus  rays  of  light 
upon  the  retina? 

7.  Which  come  to  a  focus  more  readily  in  properly 
formed  eyes,  rays  of  light  from  near-by  objects  or  rays  of 
light  from  distant  objects? 

8.  Why  is  it  restful  to  the  eyes  now  and  then  to  look 
away  at  distant  objects  while  reading  or  studying? 

9.  Explain  why  rest  from  all  close  work  for  a  few  hours 
or  days  will  often  make  tired  eyes  all  right  again. 

10.  Why  does  rest  from  all  close  work  by  artificial  light 
often  have  a  good  effect? 

1 1 .  Tell  why  in  most  rooms  it  is  well  to  sit  near  windows 
when  doing  close  work. 

12.  Why  should  close  work  not  be  done  by  twilight? 

13.  Why  is  it  very  trying  to  the  eyes  to  read  while  riding 
on  a  moving  vehicle? 

14.  Which  is  the  easier  for  the  eyes,  to  read  from  some- 
thing lying  flat  on  the  desk,  or  from  something  that  is  held 
up  toward  a  level  with  the  eye? 

15.  Why  should  one  sit  in  an  erect  position  and  hold  the 
head  up  while  reading? 

16.  Why  is  it  well  not  to  read  while  lying  down? 

17.  Tell  why  one  should  not  read  while  getting  well  from 
severe  illness. 

18.  What  is  said  about  the  eyes  of  delicate  children? 

19.  What  print  is  too  small  to  read? 

20.  Why  is  print  that  has  not  plenty  of  space  between 
words  and  lines  very  trying  upon  the  eyes? 

21.  Why  should  we  not  rub  our  eyes? 

22.  Tell  why  it  is  not  well  to  wipe  your  face  on  a  public 
towel. 


160          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

23.  Describe  a  good  way  to  get  a  cinder  or  other  particle 
out  of  the  eye. 

24.  Name  three  liquids  that  are  especially  injurious  to 
the  eyes. 

25.  What  special  pains  should  be  taken  with  the  eyes 
of  infants? 

26.  What  defect  in  the  form  of  the  eyeball  causes  near- 
sightedness,  and  how  is  this  defect  sometimes  caused?   Far- 
sightedness? 

27.  Tell  what  is  said  of  the  cause  and  effect  of  astigma- 
tism. 

28.  Tell  the  cause,  effect,  and  cure  of  cross-eye. 

29.  How  may  the  defects  of  nearsightedness,  farsighted- 
ness, and  astigmatism  often  be  overcome? 

30.  Mention  several  things  a  properly  formed  eye  should 
be  able  to  see  well. 

31.  What  may  be  gained  by  wearing  glasses? 

32.  Mention  seven  ways  in  which  you  may  favor  your 
eyes. 

33.  Tell  ten  things  not  to  do  that  may  injure  your  eyes. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

THE  EARS 

Value  of  Good  Hearing.  —  People  sometimes  dispute 
as  to  whether  good  eyesight  or  good  hearing  is  of 
the  greater  benefit.  The  one  thing  certain  is  that 
either  is  altogether  too  valuable  to  get  along  without, 
if  it  can  possibly  be  kept.  The  pleasure  of  hearing 
the  conversation  of  our  friends,  the  joy  of  listening  to 
music  and  the 
many  delightful 

voices  of  na- 
ture,  are  all  lost 
through  deaf- 
ness. It  is,  to 
say  the  least,  a 
great  handicap 
not  to  plainly 

hear    OUr    teach-  Section  through  the  ear. 

ers  and  fellow-pupils  in  school.  It  is  also  true  that 
impaired  hearing  unfits  one  for  many  desirable  voca- 
tions (vo-ka'shunz). 

M  161 


162          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE   OF  THE  BODY 

Surely,  then,  it  is  well  worth  while  to  learn  how  to 
protect  and  care  for  our  ears.  To  understand  the 
reasons  for  such  care  and  protection,  we  need  first  to 
learn  some  facts  about  the  structure  and  working  of 
these  important  organs. 

Structure  of  the  Ear.  -  -  The  ear  has  three  divisions, 
the  outer,  the  middle,  and  the  inner  ear.  The  outer  ear 
is  the  little  flap  of  cartilage  and  skin  called  the  auricle, 
which  we  can  see  and  feel,  and  the  small  tube  leading 
inward  from  it.  The  latter  is  called  the  auditory 
(a'di-to-ry)  canal. 

The  middle  ear  or  ear  drum  is  a  very  small  cavity 
at  the  end  of  the  auditory  canal.  It  contains  three 
tiny  bones  joined  together  to  form  a  little  bridge  or 
chain.  It  is  separated  from  the  auditory  canal  by 
a  thin  membrane  called  the  drumhead,  often  incor- 
rectly spoken  of  as  the  ear  drum.  In  front  of  the 
middle  ear  cavity,  there  is  an  opening  into  a  little 
passage,  called  the  Eustachian  (u-sta'ki-an)  tube, 
which  leads  into  the  throat.  This  little  passage 
serves  the  very  useful  purpose  of  keeping  the  pres- 
sure of  air  in  the  middle  ear  the  same  as  that  of  the 
outside  air. 

The  inner  ear  is  a  shell-shaped  hollow  in  one  of  the 
bones  of  the  skull.  It  contains  a  fluid,  and  has  a  lining 
from  which  float  delicate  nerves  which  connect  with 
the  brain. 


THE  EARS  163 

How  we  Hear.  -  -  Throw  a  stone  into  the  water  and 
watch  the  ripples  pass  from  the  place  where  it  strikes. 
Sound  travels  in  waves  through  the  air  as  motion  passes 
from  the  place  where  a  stone  falls  into  the  water. 
These  traveling  sound  waves  are  taken  up  by  the  auri- 
cle of  the  ear,  and  directed  into  the  auditory  canal  to 
the  middle  ear,  where  they  set  the  drumhead  in  motion. 
The  motion  of  the  drumhead  is  imparted  to  the  chain 
of  bones  in  the  middle  ear.  This  in  turn  sets  the  liquid 
of  the  inner  ear  in  motion,  and  the  nerves  fastened  to 
the  floating  soft  parts  therein,  carry  the  sound  to  the 
brain. 

Conditions  Necessary  to  Good  Hearing.  —  To  have 
good  hearing,  the  auditory  canal  must  be  open  and 
unobstructed;  the  drumhead  must  be  in  good  condi- 
tion to  vibrate ;  the  chain  of  bones  must  be  free  to  move 
forward  and  backward  as  the  drumhead  vibrates;  the 
liquid  of  the  inner  ear  must  respond  freely  to  the 
motion  of  the  chain  of  bones,  and  the  nerves  must  be 
in  good  condition  to  carry  the  impressions  (im-presh'- 
unz)  to  the  brain. 

Stoppage  of  the  Auditory  Canal.  —  The  auditory 
canal  contains  glands  which  secrete  earwax.  Earwax 
serves  the  useful  purpose  of  stopping  dust  and  small 
insects.  The  skin  of  the  auditory  canal  grows  outward, 
and  so,  as  a  rule,  careful  daily  bathing  of  the  ear  will 
remove  the  wax  not  needed.  Sometimes  earwax  is 


164          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

packed  down  by  trying  to  swab  or  dig  it  out,  and  so 
sound  cannot  pass  through  the  auditory  canal.  In 
such  cases  the  wax  should  be  syringed  (sir'mjd)  out 
by  a  physician  or  some  one  who  knows  how  to  do  it 
without  injuring  the  ear.  After  the  impacted  (im- 
pakt'ed)  wax  is  removed,  the  hearing  will  be  good 
again. 

Buttons,  other  small  articles,  and  even  live  insects 
sometimes  get  into  the  ear.  There  is  no  need  for  the 
alarm  that  such  accidents  often  arouse,  for  the 
drumhead  will  keep  anything  from  getting  into  the 
middle  or  inner  ear,  where  harm  can  be  done.  However, 
one  should  not  try  to  get  them  out  with  a  wire  or  any- 
thing pointed,  since  that  might  injure  the  drumhead. 
The  auricle  should  be  drawn  upward  and  downward, 
and  the  head  held  so  that  the  ear  will  open  downward. 
Then,  if  the  head  is  shaken  gently,  what  is  inside  the 
canal  may  drop  out.  If  not,  it  may  run  out  with 
some  warm  water  that  has  been  carefully  syringed 
in.  Should  both  methods  fail,  a  physician  should  be 
visited  without  delay,  as  injury  might,  in  time,  be 
caused. 

Injury  to  the  Drumhead.  —  If  the  drumhead  is  broken 
or  injured,  it  will  not  vibrate  as  it  should,  and  hence 
deafness  results.  Such  injuries  may  be  caused  by  some 
pointed  article  such  as  a  pencil  or  wire  being  thrust 
into  the  ear  by  accident.  On  account  of  both  eyes  and 


THE  EARS 


165 


ears,  children  should  be  very  careful  about  playing  with 
anything  pointed. 

A  loud  explosion  near  the  ear  or  a  hard,  quick  slap 
on  the  ear  may  cause  severe  injury  to  the  drumhead. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  get  too  near  giant 
firecrackers  or  cannon  that  are  about  to  explode. 


.Deafness  and  other  serious  injuries  are  caused  by  carelessness 
in  using  fireworks. 

The  fun  and  excitement  of  hearing  the  loud  noise  lasts 
but  a  moment.  The  deafness  it  may  cause,  will  last 
for  a  lifetime. 

Stoppage  of  the  Eustachian  Tube.  —  One  of  the  most 
common  causes  of  injury  to  the  drumhead  is  stoppage 


166          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

of  the  Eustachian  tube.  Since  this  tube  leads  from 
the  throat  to  the  ears,  it  is  affected  by  colds  just  as 
are  other  parts  of  the  air  passages.  Continuous  mouth 
breathing,  frequent  colds,  and  other  causes  often  so 
inflame  the  Eustachian  tube  as  to  stop  up  its  entrance. 
The  pressure  of  the  air  of  the  inner  tube  is  then  less 
than  that  of  outside  air.  On  that  account  the  pres- 
sure of  air  from  outside  breaks  the  drumhead,  causing 
deafness.  If  we  breathe  pure  air,  keep  free  from  colds, 
and  avoid  the  mouth-breathing  habit,  we  shall  keep  the 
Eustachian  tube  open  and  healthy. 

Snuffing  any  liquid  violently  (vl'6-lent-ly)  through 
the  nose,  or  jumping  from  high  places,  while  in  swim- 
ming, without  holding  the  nose,  may,  in  time,  cause 
stoppage  of  the  Eustachian  tube,  and  so  should  be 
avoided.  One  should  also  be  very  careful  to  get  water 
out  of  the  ears  after  going  in  swimming,  for  not  doing 
so  may  cause  injury. 

Deafness,  roaring,  and  other  unusual  sounds  in  the 
ear  are  signs  that  the  Eustachian  tube  may  be  stopped. 
A  vigorous  blowing  of  the  nose  will  often  open  the  tube 
and  give  relief.  If  either  deafness  or  these  unusual 
sounds  continue  after  a  cold,  measles,  scarlet  fever, 
or  any  other  disease,  an  aurist  (a'rist)  should  be  at 
once  consulted. 

Earache.  — This  is  a  serious  sign  that  should  not  be 
allowed  to  continue  long  without  consulting  an  aurist. 


THE  EARS  167 

It  may  sometimes  be  cured  by  placing  a  hot-water  bag 
or  hot  cloths  back  of  and  below  the  auricle.  Simply 
breathing  into  the  ear  will  sometimes  soothe  a  slight 
attack.  Warm  oil  or  other  liquid  should  not  be  poured 
into  the  ear  to  relieve  pain,  unless  so  advised  by  a 
physician. 

A  Discharge  of  Pus  from  the  Ear.  —  This  is  also  a 
serious  symptom  that  should  not  be  neglected.  Nor  is 
deafness  the  only  danger  to  be  feared  from  such  a  cause. 
If  the  pus  happens  to  come  from  within  the  drum,  the 
trouble  may  spread  to  the  inner  ear  and  brain,  and  death 
itself  result. 

Other  Causes  of  Deafness.  —  It  should  also  be  re- 
membered that  persons  have  been  made  deaf  by 
taking  frequent  large  doses  of  quinine  (kwl'nin). 
On  this  account  one  should  be  very  careful  in  the  use 
of  this  drug.  Deafness  is  also  caused  by  working  where 
one  almost  constantly  hears  the  loud  clatter  of  ma- 
chinery. Any  one  engaged  in  such  work  should  wear 
ear  protectors  to  keep  out  the  sound. 

Testing  the  Ears.  —  Persons  are  often  deaf  a  long 
time  in  one  ear  without  knowing  it,  for  they  manage 
to  hear  well  enough  with  the  other  ear  to  get  along. 
As  disease  may  readily  spread  from  one  ear  to  another, 
it  is  important  to  be  sure  that  both  are  healthy.  One 
can  do  this  by  now  and  then  testing  the  ears.  The 
low-spoken  voice  should  be  heard  at  a  distance  of 


168          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

twenty  feet.  A  watch  with  a  loud  tick  can  be  heard 
about  three  feet  from  the  ear,  and  one  with  a  low  tick 
about  one  foot  away.  If  these  sounds  cannot  be 
distinctly  heard  by  one  ear,  when  the  other  is  covered, 
it  is  a  sign  that  an  aurist  should  be  consulted. 

Discomforts  of  Deafness.  —  If  persons  with  good 
hearing  could  but  realize  what  discomfort  and  real  loss 
attend  deafness,  they  would  always  take  the  greatest 
pains  to  protect  and  care  for  their  ears.  Many  really 
bright  children  are  thought  dull  in  school,  because  poor 
hearing  makes  them  unable  to  understand.  If,  by 
some  good  fortune,  the  difficulty  is  removed,  such  chil- 
'dren  often  get  on  as  well  as  the  best. 

Often  deaf  people  have  roaring  and  other  sounds  in 
the  ear  nearly  all  the  time.  This  is  not  only  disagree- 
able, but  is  likely  to  cause  nervousness.  Very  deaf 
persons  cannot  hear  themselves  speak,  and  so  their 
voices  are  either  very  loud  or  very  low.  It  is  difficult 
for  them  to  enjoy  society,  because  they  can  neither 
hear  nor  be  sure  that  they  are  making  others  under- 
stand. For  these  and  other  reasons,  the  deaf  are  often 
shy  and  unhappy.  Tell  a  deaf  person  how  much  bother 
it  is  to  properly  care  for  and  protect  your  ears.  He 
will  answer,  "  There  is  notking  so  hard  that  I  would 
not  try  my  best  to  do  it,  if  it  would  only  bring  back 
the  hearing  that  I  used  to  have." 


THE  EARS  169 

.  POINTS   FOR  SPECIAL  STUDY 

Six  Things  to  do  in  caring  for  the  Ears:  — 

1.  Bathe  the  ears  carefully  each  day  to  remove  waste 
skin,  dirt,  and  earwax. 

2.  Breathe  through  the  nose,  and  keep  free  from  colds. 

3.  Always  get  the  water  out  of  your  ears  after  going  in 
swimming. 

4.  If  you  have  roaring  or  other  unusual  sounds  in  the  ear, 
consult  an  aurist. 

5.  If  you  have  either  continuous  earache  or  discharge 
of  pus  from  the  ear,  consult  an  aurist  without  delay. 

6.  Wear  ear   protectors,  if  you  work  where  there  is  a 
continual  loud  clatter  of  machinery. 

Ten  Things  to  avoid  doing  in  caring  for  the  Ears:  — 

1 .  Never  put  pencils  or  other  pointed  articles  in  your  ears. 

2.  Do  not  try  to  swab  or  dig  out  earwax. 

3.  If  an  insect  or  any  small  article  gets  in  your  ear,  do 
not  be  unduly  frightened,  and  do  not  try  to  remove  it  with 
a  wire  or  anything  pointed. 

4.  Do  not  get  near  giant  firecrackers  or  cannon  that  are 
about  to  explode. 

5.  Never  strike  any  one  on  the  ears. 

6.  Do  not  snuff  any  liquid  violently  up  the  nose. 

7.  While  in  swimming,  do  not  jump  from  high  places 
without  holding  the  nose. 

8.  Never  pour  warm  oil  or  any  liquid  into  your  ears, 
unless  so  advised  by  a  doctor. 

9.  Do  not  take  either  frequent  or  large  doses  of  quinine. 
10.    Do  not  work  amid  the  loud  clatter  of  machinery  with- 
out wearing  ear  protectors. 


170         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  three  divisions  of  the  ear. 

2.  What  is  the  outer  ear? 

3.  What  is  the  middle  ear  sometimes  called? 

4.  Tell  what  separates  the  auditory  canal  from  the  middle 
ear. 

5.  What  does  the  middle  ear  contain? 

6.  What  tube  leads  from  the  middle  ear  to  the  throat, 
and  what  useful  purpose  does  it  serve? 

7.  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  middle  ear. 

8.  Describe  the  inner  ear. 

9.  Tell  how  we  hear. 

10.  Mention  several  conditions  necessary  to  good  hearing. 

11.  What  glands  are  in  the  auditory  canal,  and  what  is 
the  use  of  the  wax  they  secrete? 

12.  Why  should  this  wax  not  be  swabbed  or  dug  out? 

13.  What  does  impacted  earwax  sometimes  cause? 

14.  How  may  impacted  earwax  be  removed? 

15.  Why  is  there  no  need  for  great  alarm  from  insects 
or  small  articles  getting  into  the  ear? 

16.  How  should  they  be  removed? 

17.  Tell  why  pencils  and  other  pointed    articles    may 
injure  the  ear. 

18.  What  injury  to  the  ear  may  be  caused  by  a  loud 
explosion? 

19.  Tell  how  stoppage  of  the  Eustachian  tube  may  injure 
the  ears. 

20.  Mention  some  causes  of  the  stoppage  of  the  Eustachian* 
tube. 

21.  Give  some  signs  of  the  stoppage  of  the  Eustachian 
tube. 

22.  In  what  simple  way  may  the  stoppage  of  the  Eusta- 
chian tube  sometimes  be  relieved? 


THE  EARS  171 

23.  Tell  what  is  said  of  earache. 

24.  Why  is  the  discharge  of  pus  from  the  ear  a  serious 
symptom? 

25.  Why  should  one  be  very  careful  in  the  use  of  quinine? 

26.  Tell  in  what  kind  of  work  it  is  well  to  wear  ear  pro- 
tectors. 

27.  Explain  why  it  is  well  to  be  sure  that  we  are  hearing 
through  both  ears. 

28.  Tell  how  to  test  the  ears. 

29.  Why  are  some  really  bright  children  dull  in  school? 

30.  Mention  some  of  the  discomforts  of  deafness. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE    CARE    OF    THE    BODY 

THE    VOICE 

The  Voice  —  Value  of  Voice  Training.  —  Some  people 
are  paid  good  salaries  for  singing  in  choirs.  Famous 
singers  receive  what  seem  to  be  fabulous  sums  for  one 
concert.  Often  public  speakers  get  large  prices  for  a 
lecture,  largely  because  of  their  excellent  use  of  good 
voices.  No  one  will  question  that  care  and  pains  in 
training  the  voice  have  well  repaid  such  persons. 

Even  singing  well  enough  to  please  our  friends  and 
to  enjoy  taking  part  in  singing,  ourselves,  is  a  great 
benefit,  since  few  things  count  more  toward  taking 
one  into  good  society  and  giving  him  healthful  enjoy- 
ment than  taking  part  in  and  liking  good  music.  Abil- 
ity to  use  the  voice  well  is  a  great  help  in  expressing 
one's  thoughts  in  public;  and  this  power  adds  much  to 
the  usefulness  of  any  citizen.  Simply  for  these  reasons, 
then,  careful  training  of  the  voice  is  well  worth  while. 

But  leaving  singing  and  public  speaking  out  of  the 
question,  using  the  voice  correctly  is  of  great  value  to 
everybody.  There  are  few  things  that  may  make  one 

172 


THE   VOICE 


173 


more  winning  or  do  more  to  help  him  to  favor  than  a 
pleasing,  well-modulated  (mod'ti-lat-ed)  voice  in  con- 
versation. The  effect  of  a  handsome  face  may  be  al- 
most spoiled  by  a  harsh  or  shrill  voice.  So,  too,  a 
gentle,  refined  voice  may  make  a 
person  with  a  plain  face  very  at- 
tractive. 

Without  question  good  English 
and  a  pleasing  voice  are  among 
the  most  marked  evidences  (ev'i- 
dens-ez)  of  good  education  and  re- 
fined home  and  school  associations 
(as-so-si-a'shunz).  If  the  voice 
were  given  one-twentieth  of  the 
attention  in  school  that  English 
receives,  there  would  be  great  im- 
provement, since  care  and  thought 
in  childhood  would,  in  most  cases, 

prevent  harsh  Or  Shrill  tones.  The  larynx    and  wind- 

TT-         i    r*      j  jo  P*Pe'  ventral  view.     6,  &', 

VOCal    L/OrdS    and    OOUna.  --  bronchi;    c,   cricoid    carti- 


The  larynx,  the  «  Adam's  apple  » 
that  we  can  feel  at  the  top  of  our  lage;  ^windpipe. 
windpipe  in  the  throat,  contains  the  vocal  cords. 
They  are  two  little  flat  bands  of  membrane  running 
along  each  side  within  the  larynx,  and  from  back  to 
front.  Except  when  we  use  the  voice,  they  lie  close 
to  the  sides  of  the  larynx,  and  are  not  affected  by  the 


174         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

air  passing  from  the  lungs.  When  we  are  using  the 
voice,  certain  muscles  cause  these  cords  to  tighten  so 
that  they  move  toward  each  other  until  there  is  but  a 
narrow  space  between  them.  The  air  passing  from  the 
lungs  over  the  stretched  cords  causes  them  to  vibrate 
(vi'brat),  thus  producing  sound.  A  slight  current  of 
air  makes  a  little  sound.  A  heavy  current  of  air  pro- 
duces a  loud  sound. 

.fp/g/ott/s 


The  larynx,  top  view  (Zuppke).  A  and  a,  the  vocal  cords  in  resting  posi- 
tion; B  and  6,  the  vocal  cords  in  position  for  producing  voice. 

Pitch  of  Tone.  —  The  thick  strings  of  a  violin  and 
similar  instruments  (in'stru-ments)  give  low  tones,  and 
the  thin  strings,  high  tones.  In  strings  of  the  same 
thickness  a  tight  string  gives  a  higher  tone  than  a 
loose  string,  and  a  short  string  gives  a  higher  tone 
than  a  long  one. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  human  voice.  Those  who 
have  long  or  thick  vocal  cords  have  low  and  heavy 


THE   VOICE  175 

voices.  Persons  with  short  or  thin  vocal  cords  have 
higher  and  less  heavy  voices.  The  larynx  of  men 
is  usually  larger  than  that  of  women.  Hence  their 
vocal  cords  are  longer,  and  their  voices  have  a  lower 
pitch.  A  boy's  voice  changes  because  his  larynx  sud- 
denly becomes  much  larger ,  and  his  vocal  cords  are 
lengthened.  Colds  sometimes  cause  the  vocal  cords 
to  thicken,  arid  so  the  tones  become  hoarse. 

Care  of  the  Voice.  —  While  a  boy's  voice  is  changing, 
he  should  sing  very  little.  It  is  well  for  all  not  to  sing 
much  when  the  vocal  cords  are  affected  by  a  cold. 
Always  avoid  straining  the  voice  by  singing  too  high, 
too  loudly,  or  too  long.  With  regular  practice  one 
may,  in  time,  reach  the  desired  note  or  volume  with- 
out straining.  Many  good  voices  have  been  spoiled 
by  carelessness  in  these  respects. 

A  pleasing  voice  in  conversation  may  be  formed 
mainly  by  taking  pains  not  to  speak  too  loudly  or  too 
high.  If  one  begins  when  quite  young,  it  will  soon 
become  his  habit,  and  there  will  be  little  need  to  think 
about  it  later.  If  there  happens  to  be  a  deaf  person 
in  the  family,  special  pains  will  be  required  not  to  use 
the  same  tone  with  others  that  it  is  necessary  to  employ 
with  the  one  who  is  deaf.  It  often  happens  in  such 
families  that  nearly  every  member  speaks  in  unpleas- 
antly loud  tones.  This  may,  however,  easily  be 
avoided  if  one  will  but  think. 


176          THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE   OF  THE  BODY 

Breath  Control  and  Voice. --The  best  singers  and 
public  speakers  use  deep  breathing.  Thus  they  have 
plenty  of  air  in  their  lungs,  and  having  developed  strong 
breathing  muscles,  they  readily  control  it  in  speaking 
and  singing.  From  this  we  see  that  developing  our 
lungs  and  breathing  muscles  gives  us  better  control 
of  our  voices.  So,  also,  exercising  and  training  the 
voice  is  excellent  exercise  for  the  lungs. 

Speaking  Plainly.  —  Many  persons  do  not  speak 
plainly  because  they  fail  to  open  their  mouths  wide 
enough  for  the  sound  to  pass  out  freely.  They  also 
neglect  to  make  such  use  of  the  tongue,  teeth,  and  lips 
as  will  sound  the  final  syllables  and  letters.  In  speak- 
ing, the  mouth  should  be  opened  so  that  at  least  two 
fingers,  one  above  the  other,  can  be  placed  between 
the  teeth.  Through  practice  in  saying  words  and  sen- 
tences that  end  in  final  #'s,  s's,  £'s,  d's,  and  other  let- 
ters and  syllables  that  are  difficult,  much  power  may  be 
gained  in  speaking  distinctly. 

Quality  of  Tone.  --The  quality  of  tone  depends  not 
only  upon  the  length  and  thickness  of  the  vocal  cords, 
but  also  upon  the  shape  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
Many  persons  speak  with  a  more  or  less  thin  nasal 
tone.  We  say  that  they  speak  through  their  noses. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  is  often  caused  by  the  nose 
being  stopped  up  by  adenoids  or  something  similar. 
Sometimes  it  is  merely  a  bad  habit  that  can  be  cor- 
rected by  being  careful. 


THE   VOICE  177 

POINTS  FOR  SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  Pleasing  voice  and  distinctness  of  speech  are  marked 
signs  of  education  and  refinement.    By  taking  pains  to  avoid 
loudness  and  shrillness  of  tones  in  conversation  most  persons 
can  have  such  a  voice. 

2.  Distinctness  of  speech  may  be  gained  by  opening  the 
mouth  when  using  the  voice,  and  by  gaining  facility  in  the 
use  of  the  tongue,  teeth,  and  lips,  through  practicing  words 
and  sentences  containing  final  s's,  t's,  d's,  and  other  difficult 
sounds. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  why  being  able  to  sing  well  is  often  a  great 
benefit. 

2.  State  how  a  pleasing  voice  in  conversation  is  of  great 
benefit  to  anybody. 

3.  Tell  what  is  said  about  the  vocal  cords. 

4.  What  causes  the  vocal  cords  to  make  sound? 

5.  Tell  about  the  pitch  of  tone  in  violin  strings. 

6.  Why  are  men's  voices  heavier  than  women's? 

7.  What  causes  a  boy's  voice  to  change? 

8.  Mention  some  ways  in  which  voices  are  often  injured. 

9.  Tell  how  a  pleasing  voice  in  conversation  may  be 
formed. 

10.  If  there  is  a  deaf  person  in  the  family,  why  is  it, nec- 
essary to  take  special  pains  about  one's  tone  ? 

11.  State  some  causes  of  indistinct  speaking,  and  tell 
how  one  can  improve  in  these  respects. 

12.  Besides  the  vocal  cords,  on  what  does  quality  of  tone 
depend? 

13.  -What  is  said  about  speaking  through  the  nose? 


CHAPTER   XXV 

THE    CARE    OF   THE    BODY 

CLOTHING,    HAIR,    AND   NAILS. 

Clothing.  —  Clothing  helps  to  keep  us  warm  because 
it  prevents  the  heat  of  the  body  from  escaping  too 
rapidly.  Air  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat.  Therefore 
loosely  woven  clothing,  such  as  woolen,  is  warmer  than 
garments  made  of  cotton,  linen,  or  some  closer  weave. 
For  a  similar  reason,  two  thin  garments  or  blankets 
are  warmer  than  one  of  the  same  weight  as  both  to- 
gether. Dark  colors  attract  heat.  Hence  light-colored 
clothes  are  cooler  in  summer  than  those  of  a  darker 
color.  It  is  important  to  wear  heavy  enough  clothing 
to  keep  us  comfortably  (kum'fert-a-bly)  warm.  At 
any  season  of  the  year,  however,  it  is  a  mistake  to 
"  bundle  up  "  with  too  heavy  or  too  many  clothes. 
They  not  only  keep  the  body  too  warm,  but  also  pre- 
vent the  air  from  doing  its  part  in  cleansing  the  skin. 

Underclothing.  —  Whatever  is  worn  next  to  the  skin 
becomes  soiled,  and  so  should  be  readily  washed.  For 
this  reason  as  well  as  to  help  in  keeping  warm  we  should 
wear  underclothing.  Woolen  underwear  is  good  because 

178 


THE  CLOTHING  179 

it  does  not  allow  bodily  heat  to  pass  too  fast,  and  also 
because  it  readily  absorbs  perspiration.  Porous  or  mesh 
cotton  or  linen  underwear  is  warmer  and  better  than 
closely  woven  garments  of  the  same  material. 

Shoes  and  Rubbers.  —  Shoes  of  pliable  leather  are 
more  comfortable  than  those  of  stiffer  material.  Nei- 
ther very  narrow  nor  extremely  wide  shoes  should  be 
worn;  but  one  should  buy  shoes  that  are  like  the  nat- 


An  unhygienic  shoe.  A  hygienic  shoe. 

ural  shape  of  his  feet.  High,  narrow  heels  are  injuri- 
ous, and  should  not  be  worn. 

Rubbers  should  be  removed  when  one  goes  indoors 
to  remain  any  length  of  time.  If  left  on,  they  make 
the  feet  too  warm  and  often  cause  one  to  catch  cold 
upon  going  out  into  the  cold  air. 

Good  Taste  in  Dress.  —  Neatness  and  good  taste  in 
dress  are  without  doubt  important  helps  to  success 
in  life.  Like  a  pleasing  voice  and  distinct  speech,  they 
aid  both  in  giving  a  good  first  impression  (im-presh'un) 
and  likewise  in  retaining  respect.  Our  clothes  should 


180          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

always  be  clean  and  tidy.  The  colors  we  wear  should 
always  be  in  harmony  (har'mo-ni).  The  materials 
used  should  be  chosen  on  account  of  their  beauty  and 
simplicity  (sim-plis'ity),  and  not  because  they  are 
of  a  striking  or  gaudy  pattern.  It  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  both  hat  and  shoes  are  conspicuous 
(kon-spik'u-iis)  parts  of  one's  dress.  They  should 
be  kept  neat  and  clean  by  frequent  and  thorough 
brushing. 

Growth  of  the  Hair.  — The  skin  or  covering  of  the  head 
is  called  the  scalp.  Each  hair  grows  from  a  tiny  root 
in  the  scalp.  It  is  also  supplied  with  oil  by  tiny  oil 
glands.  Like  other  parts  of  the  body,  the  scalp  is 
supplied  with  nutriment  by  the  blood.  It  also  needs 
to  be  cleansed  by  the  air.  Hence  anything  that  inter- 
feres with  the  circulation  of  blood  to  the  scalp  or  that 
keeps  air  from  the  scalp  will  affect  the  healthy  growth 
of  the  hair.  It  is  also  true  that  if  the  pores  of  the 
scalp  are  allowed  to  become  stopped  up,  it  will  become 
diseased. 

Care  of  the  Hair.  —  Hair  may  be  washed  daily,  but 
soap  should  not  be  used  on  it  more  than  once  a  week. 
When  soap  is  used,  it  should  be  thoroughly  washed  out. 
Frequent  vigorous  brushing  and  rubbing  of  the  scalp 
help  the  circulation  of  blood,  and  so  tend  to  keep 
the  scalp  healthy;  they  also  help  to  make  the  oil  glands 
active.  Hair  oils  or  pastes  should  not  be  used,  because 


THE  HAIR 


181 


they  tend  to  make  the  scalp  dirty  and  to  stop  up  the 
pores. 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  read  that  the  skin  is  con- 
stantly shedding  little  scales.  In  the  scalp  these  scales 
are  called  dandruff  (dan'druf).  Bathing  and  the 
friction  (frik'shun)  of 
clothing  readily  re- 
move these  scales  from 
the  skin  of  the  body. 
The  hair  of  the  scalp 
helps  to  retain  them. 
Daily  thorough  comb- 
ing and  brushing  the 
hair  is  necessary  to  re- 
move  dandruff.  If 
dandruff  is  not  re- 
moved, the  scalp  is 
very  likely  to  become 
unhealthy. 

Baldness.  --  Bald- 
ness is  thought  to  be 
largely  caused  by  wearing  too  heavy  and  too  tight  hats,, 
since  they  both  interfere  with  the  circulation  of  blood 
to  the  scalp,  and  keep  air  and  sunshine  away  as  well. 
Not  removing  dandruff  is  also  a  cause.  By  going  with- 
out a  hat  as  much  as  possible,  by  wearing  hats  and 
caps  of  light  weight,  and  by  frequent  brushing  and 
combing  the  hair,  baldness  may  be  prevented. 


Caring  for  the  hair. 


182         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

Boys  whose  relatives  are  bald  are  perhaps  more 
likely  to  lose  their  hair  than  others.  They  should  take 
special  pains  in  the  matter  of  keeping  the  scalp  well 
cleansed  and  exercised,  and  in  wearing  light  hats.  Even 
after  the  hair  has  begun  to  fall  out,  vigorously  rubbing 
the  scalp  with  the  ends  of  the  ringers  several  times 
daily  will  restore  it  to  a  healthy  state.  This  practice 
is  also  excellent  before  the  hair  begins  to  fall  out. 

The  hair  both  protects  the  head  and  adds  to  its 
beauty.  It  is  a  fine  thing  to  have  a  good  head  of  hair 
as  long  as  we  live,  since  it  adds  to  our  appearance  of 
youth  and  strength.  It  is  not  hard  to  understand  how 
to  keep  the  scalp  healthy.  If  boys  could  look  into  the 
future  and  see  themselves  bald,  or  with  good  heads  of 
hair,  they  would  surely  think  a  little  daily  care  the  best 
kind  of  an  investment.  It  is  simply  another  case  of 
forming  a  daily  habit  that  will  count. 

The  Nails.  --The  nails  are  the  hardened  parts  of  the 
outer  skin  (epidermis)  that  protect  the  ends  of  the 
fingers  and  toes.  They  aid  the  fingers  in  picking  things 
up,  and  likewise  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  hands  and 
feet. 

Care  of  the  Nails.  —  Toe  nails  should  be  cleaned  and 
trimmed  at  least  when  one  takes  the  weekly  warm  bath. 
If  allowed  to  become  too  long,  they  grow  into  the  flesh 
and  cause  discomfort  and  pain. 

Finger  nails  should  be  kept  short  by  trimming  or 


THE  NAILS 


183 


filing  (filing).  When  so  cared  for,  it  is  easier  to  keep 
the  dirt  out,  though  even  then  they  should  be  cleaned 
several  times  a 
day.  It  is  well 
to  form  the  hab- 
it of  caring  for 
the  finger  nails 
whenever  we 
wash  our  hands. 
If  at  such  times 
we  also  gently 
push  back  the 
skin  from  the  Caring  for  the  nails' 

nails,  hangnails  may  be  easily  prevented.  Clean, 
well-kept  finger  nails  are  signs  of  good  breeding 
that  all  should  possess.  As  in  many  other  particulars, 
the  early  formation  of  the  right  habit  is  the  chief 
thing. 

POINTS   FOR    SPECIAL    STUDY 

1.  Tidiness  and  good  taste  in  dress  are  excellent  signs  of 
proper  self-respect  and  decent  consideration  (ko'n-sid'e'r-a- 
shun)  for  others. 

2.  We  should  form  the  habit  of  caring  for  the  finger  nails 
whenever  we  wash  the  hands.     Hangnails  may  be  prevented 
by  pushing  the  skin  back  from  the  nails  when  the  hands  are 
bathed. 

3.  Hair  may  be  kept  healthy  by  keeping  the  scalp  clean 
and  by  wearing  nothing  on  the  head  that  will  interfere  with 


184         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

the  free  circulation  of  blood  to  the  roots  of  the  scalp,  or  the 
free  access  of  air  to  its  outer  surface. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  why  loosely  woven  clothing  is  warmer  than  that 
which  is  tightly  woven. 

2.  Why  are  two  light  garments  warmer  than  one  of  the 
same  weight  as  both  ? 

3.  Why  is  dark  clothing  warmer  than  that  of  the  same 
weight  of  a  lighter  color  ? 

4.  Tell  what  is  said  of  " bundling  up." 

5.  What  is  said  of  underclothing  ? 

6.  Why  are  neatness  and  good  taste  in  dress  helps  to 
success  in  life  ? 

7.  Tell  what  materials  to  choose  for  our  clothes. 

8.  Give  two  uses  of  finger  nails. 

9.  Tell  what  is  said  about  the  care  of  toe  nails;  of  finger 
nails. 

10.  State  how  hair  grows  and  by  what  it  is  supplied  with 
oil. 

1 1 .  What  prevents  the  hair  from  being  healthy  ? 

12.  Mention  several  things  one  should  do  to  help  keep 
the  scalp  healthy. 

13.  What  is  said  of  dandruff  ? 

14.  Mention  the  causes  of  baldness. 

15.  Tell  how  to  prevent  baldness. 

16.  Why  should  we  try  to  have  a  good  head  of  hair   as 
long  as  we  live? 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE    CARE    OF    THE    BODY 

COMMON    ACCIDENTS 

There  are  many  common  accidents  that  injure  the 
body,  and  sometimes  even  cause  death.  By  using 
care  and  good  sense  it  is  possible  to  avoid  many  of 
these.  In  spite  of  the  best  of  care,  however,  it  may  be 
our  misfortune  to  meet  with  some  of  them.  It  is  well, 
therefore,  to  know  a  few  simple  remedies,  which,  if 
used  in  time,  may  be  of  service. 

Bruises.  —  These  are  caused  by  falls  or  by  the  flesh 
being  struck  by  something  blunt.  The  part  of  the  body 
struck  usually  swells;  it  also  becomes  black  and  blue 
on  account  of  the  bursting  blood  vessels.  This  dis- 
coloring may  be  prevented,  to  some  extent,  by  apply- 
ing cloths  wet  in  hot  or  cold  water  every  two  or  three 
minutes.  This  treatment  also  helps  to  reduce  the 
swelling. 

Cuts.  —  Any  cut  through  the  skin  should  be  at  once 
cleansed,  and  covered  with  a  bandage  or  plaster.  If 
it  is  not,  harmful  bacteria  may  get  in  and  cause  serious 
injury.  A  cut  from  a  rusty  nail,  or  anything  else  that 
is  dirty,  may  produce  fatal  results.  At  the  first  sign 

185 


186          THE  BUILDING  AND   CAKE  OF  THE  BODY 

that  anything  severe  or  unusual  is  developing  from 
such  a  cut,  a  physician  should  be  visited.  If  a  cut  is  so 
deep  that  there  is  a  large  flow  of  blood,  the  cleanest 
cloth  at  hand  should  be  pressed  upon  the  wound,  and 
one  should  hurry  to  a  doctor,  or  send  for  one. 

Burns  and  Scalds.  —  Burns  and  scalds  are  commonly 
caused  by  fire,  hot  water,  acids,  or  alkalies.  If  one's 
clothing  catches  fire,  the  worst  possible  thing  to  do  is 
to  run.  The  best  thing  is  to  smother  the  fire  with  a 
rug,  cloak,  or  other  thick  garment.  Linen  cloths 
soaked  in  a  mixture  of  soda  and  water  are  excellent  for 
burns.  Cloths  soaked  in  oil  or  smeared  with  vaseline 
may  be  applied  afterward.  Touching  a  charged  electric 
wire  causes  severe  burns  and  sometimes  death.  It 
should  always  be  avoided.  In  case  of  any  severe  burn 
a  doctor  should  be  consulted. 

Effects  of  Cold.  —  Partly  frozen  noses,  ears,  fingers, 
and  toes  are  more  or  less  common  in  a  cold  climate. 
If  proper  care  is  not  taken,  much  discomfort  and  bother 
may  follow.  The  frozen  part  should  be  rubbed  in 
snow  or  cold  water  until  it  begins  to  tingle  and  get  red. 
Both  the  tingling  and  the  change  in  color  are  signs  that 
the  circulation  of  blood,  which  was  stopped,  has  been 
restored.  One  should  not  go  near  a  stove  or  other  warm 
place  until  the  frost  has  been  removed. 

Escaping  Gas.  —  Many  persons  have  been  killed  by 
breathing  escaping  gas.  Before  going  to  bed,  one 


COMMON  ACCIDENTS  187 

should  always  take  pains  to  see  that  gas  burning  in 
either  chandelier  or  stove  in  the  sleeping  room  is  fully 
turned  off.  People,  not  used  to  gas,  sometimes  make 
the  mistake  of  blowing  it  out. 

Drowning. — Both  boys  and  girls  should  consider 
swimming  a  very  important  part  of  their  education, 
since  it  is  the  best  way  to  prevent  drowning.  It  may 
be  useful  to  know  that  it  takes  very  little  to  prevent 
one  from  sinking,  if  he  tries  to  keep  only  his  nose  above 
water.  One  should  never  hang  heavily  to  the  neck 
or  body  of  a  person  who  is  trying  to  save  him  from 
drowning.  By  so  doing,  he  may  drown  both  himself 
and  his  rescuer  (res'ku-er).  By  hanging  on  lightly 
and  merely  keeping  the  nose  above  water,  the  work  of 
rescue  is  made  far  easier. 

In  case  a  boat  tips  over,  those  overboard  should  not 
try  to  climb  on  top  of  it,  for  by  so  doing  it  may  be  sunk. 
Instead,  they  should  all  take  hold  of  the  boat  lightly, 
simply  trying  to  keep  their  noses  above  water  till  help 
appears. 

Fainting.  —  Several  conditions  produce  fainting.  As 
the  cause  is  always  too  little  blood  in  the  head,  the 
person  who  has  fainted  should  be  laid  flat  on  his  back. 
The  clothing  about  the  neck  should  also  be  loosened, 
so  that  the  blood  may  flow  to  the  head  more  freely. 
People  should  not  crowd  around  a  fainting  person, 
since  that  keeps  the  air  away,  and  he  needs  all  that  open 


188          THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE   OF  THE   BODY 


COMMON  ACCIDENTS  189 

doors  or  windows  can  give.  Water  sprinkled  on  the 
face  and  smelling  salts  and  ammonia  held  to  the  nose 
are  both  helpful. 

Sting  of  Bees.  —  The  stings  of  bees  usually  pain  at 
first  and  cause  rapid  swelling.  As  a  rule,  they  can  be 
relieved  by  bathing  the  part  in  a  strong  mixture  of 
soda  and  water  or  in  ammonia. 

Poisons.  —  Poisoning  is  caused  by  taking  certain 
drugs,  eating  foods  in  which  poison  has  developed, 
and  in  various  other  ways.  If  one  becomes  poisoned, 
a  doctor  should  be  sent  for  at  once.  Until  his  arrival, 
relief  may  be  sought  through  vomiting. 

Drinking  several  glasses  of  warm  water  and  salt,  or  a 
mixture  of  a  half  teaspoonful  of  mustard  and  a  glass 
of  water,  and  following  it  with  several  glasses  of  warm 
water,  will  usually  cause  free  vomiting. 

Some  plants  are  poisonous.  Neither  the  leaves, 
roots,  nor  fruit  of  any  plants  should  be  eaten,  unless 
one  knows  them  to  be  harmless.  Toadstools  are  among 
the  common  poisonous  plants.  Since  they  resemble 
mushrooms,  which  are  good  to  eat,-  they  are  sometimes 
gathered  and  eaten  by  mistake. 

Poison  ivy  is  a  vine  that  grows  in  the  woods  and 
along  fences.  It  bears  its  leaves  in  clusters  of  three, 
and  each  leaf  has  three  distinct  leaflets.  When  this 
plant  comes  in  contact  with  the  skin  of  some  persons, 
it  causes  painful  swelling.  Others  are  harmed  very 


190          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

little  by  it.  A  mixture  of  one-fourth  of  an  ounce  of 
borax  and  two  ounces  each  of  glycerine  and  water  fre- 
quently applied  is  an  excellent  remedy.  Witch-hazel 
is  also  good. 

POINTS   FOR   SPECIAL   STUDY 

1.  Cloths  wet  in  cold  or  hot  water  every  two  minutes 
and  placed  on  a  bruise  will  help  prevent  both  discoloring 
and  swelling. 

2.  Any  cut  through  the  skin  should  be  at  once  cleansed 
and  covered  to  prevent  harmful  bacteria  from  getting  in. 

3.  Cloths  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  soda  and  water  are 
excellent  to  put  on  a  burn. 

4.  The  best  way  to  remove  frost  from  any  part  of  the 
body  is  to  rub  it  with  snow  or  cold  water.     One  should  not 
go  nea  a  stove  or  other  warm  place  until  the  frost  is  removed 
and  the  flesh  begins  to  tingle. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Mention  some  common  causes  of  bruises. 

2.  Tell  two  effects  of  a  bruise. 

3.  Describe  a  good  way  to  treat  a  bruise. 

4.  Why  should  a  cut  through  the  skin  be  cleansed  and 
covered? 

5.  What  is  said  of  cuts  from  a  rusty  nail? 

6.  What  is  it  well  to  do  in  case  of  a  deep  cut? 

7.  State  several  ways  in  which  burns  are  caused. 

8.  Tell  what  one  should  not  do  if  his  clothing  happens 
to  catch  fire,  and  also  what  is  best  to  do  in  such  a  case. 

9.  What  is  a  simple  but  excellent  remedy  for  a  burn? 

10.  Why  should  one  not  touch  a  charged  electric  wire? 

11.  Why  should  we  be  very  careful  not  to  get  acids  or 
alkalies  on  the  skin? 


COMMON  ACCIDENTS  191 

12.  Tell  how  to  treat  a  part  of  the  body  that  is  partly 
frozen. 

13.  What  care  should  be  taken  by  those  who  burn  gas, 
and  why? 

14.  Why  should  it  be  a  part  of  every  child's  education  to 
learn  to  swim? 

15.  Tell  the  easiest  way  to  keep  afloat  in  the  water. 

16.  Tell  what  not  to  do  when  a  person  is  trying  to  save 
you  from  drowning. 

17.  Why  should  persons  who  have  been  tipped  out  of  a 
boat,  not  climb  from  the  water  on  top  of  it? 

18.  Tell  why  a  fainting  person  should  be  laid  flat  on  the 
back. 

19.  What  else  may  be  done  to  relieve  one  who  has  fainted? 

20.  What  is  said  of  bee  stings? 

21.  Tell  two  good  ways  of  causing  one  to  vomit  freely., 

22.  Why  should  neither  the  leaves,  roots,  or  fruit  of  plants 
be  eaten  unless  we  know  that  they  are  harmless? 

23.  Tell  what  is  said  of  toadstools;  of  poison  ivy. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE    CARE    OF    THE    BODY 

CONTAGIOUS    DISEASES 

Any  one  who  reads  the  death  notices  in  the  paper  of 
a  great  city,  will  be  surprised  at  the  small  number  of 
people  who  live  to  old  age.  The  great  majority  die 
in  childhood  or  in  middle  life.  Many  deaths  are  due  to 
diseases  caused  by  the  growth  of  minute  plants  or  ani- 
mals in  the  body;  and  these  might  often  be  prevented 
if  ^people  but  had  the  knowledge,  and  knew  how  to 
profit  by  it. 

Disease  germs  or  microbes  are  minute  animals  called 
protozoa  (pro'to-zo'a),  or  tiny  plants  called  bacteria, 
that  get  into  the  body,  and  by  multiplying  rapidly, 
cause  disease.  They  are  too  small  to  be  seen  without 
a  microscope, — so  small,  in  fact,  that  many  thousands 
can  be  in  a  space  no  larger  than  a  drop  of  water.  They 
multiply  by  dividing  into  two  parts  about  every  half 
hour  or  more,  and  each  part  becoming  a  complete  germ, 
and  soon  multiplying  itself  in  the  same  way.  Thus  one 
germ  can  develop  into  several  million  in  the  course 
of  a  day,  if  conditions  are  favorable.  Malaria  is  one  of 
the  diseases  commonly  caused  by  protozoa.  Con- 
sumption, and  all  diseases  of  the  lungs  and  throat, 

192 


CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES  193 

typhoid  fever,  and  many  other  diseases  are  caused  by 
various  kinds  of  bacteria. 

Important  Facts  about  Disease  Germs.  —  As  a  rule, 
they  cannot  multiply  rapidly  enough  to  do  harm  in 
healthy,  vigorous  body  tissue.  Hence  keeping  strong 
and  vigorous  through  the  use  of  pure  air,  nourishing 
food,  exercise,  and  rest  is  the  best  way  to  prevent  their 
doing  harm.  They  usually  get  started  when  one's 
vitality  is  reduced  through  too  hard  work,  loss  of  sleep, 
or  lack  of  pure  air  and  good  food.  Outside  of  the  body 
boiling  water  will  kill  them.  So  also  will  a  solution 
(so-lu'shun)  of  three  teaspoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid  to 
a  glass  of  water.  Sunlight  often  destroys  them.  Some 
can  live  for  a  long  time  in  water  or  in  damp  places. 
They  also  keep  alive  in  dust  and  dirt. 

How  Disease  Germs  Spread.  —  In  consumption, 
pneumonia  (nu-mo'ni-a),  colds,  diphtheria  (dif-the'- 
ri-a),  and  all  diseases  of  the  air  passages,  the  germs  are 
in  the  sputum  ejected  by  the  patient.  Particles  of  this 
may  fly  into  the  faces  or  upon  the  clothing  of  others 
when  one  coughs.  It  may  also  alight  upon  the  floor 
or  furniture,  and  be  blown  about  in  dust  or  air,  thus 
being  breathed  in  later  by  others.  The  patient  should 
always  have  a  handkerchief  in  front  of  his  mouth  when 
he  coughs;  he  should  also  expectorate  (eks-pek'to-rat) 
into  a  pasteboard  cup  that  can  be  burned  each  day. 
All  handkerchiefs,  clothing,  dishes,  and  anything  else 


194          THE  BUILDING   AND    CARE   OF   THE  BODY 

used  by  the  patient,  should  be  kept  by  themselves 
and  washed  in  boiling  water.  Rugs,  carpets,  heavy 
curtains,  and  other  furnishings  likely  to  retain  germs, 
should  be  removed  from  the  sick  room. 

In  typhoid  fever  and  some  other  diseases,  the  germs 
are  in  the  waste  matter  that  comes  from  the  intestines 
of  the  patient.  Hence  these  diseases  are  often  spread 
by  drinking  water  from  wells  or  springs  that  drain 
outhouses,  or  from  sewage-laden  streams. 

In  scarlet  fever,  measles,  smallpox,  and  other  dis- 
eases the  infecting  germs  seem  to  come  from  the  skin 
of  the  patient.  Sometimes  they  are  got  by  touching 
or  being  touched  by  the  sick  person,  or  by  touching 
something  that  he  has  handled  or  worn.  Often  they 
are  carried  in  clothing  from  one  home  to  another. 

Milk  as  a  Germ  Carrier.  —  Consumption  germs  may 
be  in  the  milk  of  cows  that  have  the  disease.  Scarlet 
fever  and  similar  germs  may  get  into  the  milk  from  the 
hands  or  clothing  of  the  milker  or  those  who  prepare  it 
for  market.  Typhoid  fever  germs  may  get  into  milk 
in  the  water  that  dishonest  dealers  use  to  adulterate  it. 

How  to  avoid  Disease  Germs.  —  Protect  yourself 
from  the  sputum  of  all  persons  ill  with  consumption, 
colds,  and  other  diseases  of  the  air  passages.  Do 
not  drink  out  of  the  same  cup  used  by  others  without 
carefully  rinsing  it.  Do  not  put  into  your  mouth  any- 
thing that  has  been  in  the  mouth  of  another.  Be 


CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES 


195 


careful  not  to  allow  your  hand  to  rub  against  railings 
or  other  things  handled  by  many  people.  Do  not  rub 
your  eyes.  Always  wash  your  hands  before  eating. 
Boil  drinking  water,  if  there  is  any  question  as  to  its 
purity.  Keep  away  from  all  places  where  there  is  any 
contagious  disease. 

In  furnishing  a 
house,  hardwood  floors 
or  grained  floors  and 
rugs  are  more  hygienic 
than  floors  covered 
with  carpet.  Carpets 
must  be  swept.  Rugs 
can  be  taken  out  of 
doors  to  clean.  In 
dusting,  one  should 


one 

use  moist  cloths  to 
prevent  dust  from  fly- 
ing. If  water  will 
inj  ure  the  furniture, 


Dusting  with  a  cloth  moistened  in  liquid 
veneer  or  some  similar  preparation. 


dusting  cloths  should  be 
moistened  in  liquid  veneer  or  some  similar  liquid. 
Germs  are  likely  to  be  in  dust.  Therefore  the  less 
dust  stirred  up  in  a  room,  the  smaller  the  number  of 
germs  in  the  air  its  occupants  breathe.  Above  all, 
through  the  use  of  pure  air,  nutritious  food,  pure 
water,  exercise,  and  rest,  keep  your  vitality  so  high 
that  germs  cannot  multiply  in  your  body. 


196         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

The  House  Fly.  —  Children  are  often  afraid  of  bees, 
and  not  without  cause,  for  their  sting  is  painful.  Com- 
pared with  bees,  however,  house  flies  do  far  greater 
harm  to  the  body  because  they  carry  disease  germs. 

By  use  of  the  microscope,  it  has  been  found  that  as 
many  as  6,500,000  bacteria  may  be  on  a  single  fly,  and 
the  average  number  is  1,250,000.  Among  these,  there 
may  be  typhoid  or  cholera  germs  from  the  sewer  or 
privy  vault,  tubercle  bacilli  from  the  cuspidor,  or 
germs  from  a  sore  or  other  disease-infected  spot. 
These  may  be  deposited  on  food,  on  the  nipple  of  the 
baby's  bottle,  on  the  lips  of  a  sleeping  person,  or 
wherever  the  fly  alights.  By  any  of  these  routes, 
the  germs  may  get  within  the  body  and  cause  dis- 
ease. 

The  house  fly  breeds  in  manure  and  other  filth. 
Therefore  manure  should  be  kept  in  a  pit  or  vault  that 
can  be  screened ;  privy  vaults  should  also  be  screened ; 
lime  or  oil  should  be  frequently  sprinkled  on  such  pits 
or  vaults.  Garbage  should  be  kept  in  covered  recep- 
tacles (re-sep'ta-k'lz)  and  burned  or  buried,  if  not 
carted  away.  Dead  animals,  straw,  paper,  or  anything 
else  that  decays,  should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  around 
the  premises.  The  sewerage  pipes  should  be  kept  in 
the  best  condition.  Lime  or  kerosene  should  be  fre- 
quently sprinkled  in  drains.  If  flies  are  seen  in  a 
home,  one  may  be  sure  that  the  breeding  place  is 


CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  197 

•i 

near-by  filth.  It  may  be  in  the  cuspidor,  behind  the 
door,  or  in  a  neighboring  barn. 

Doors  and  windows  that  may  be  much  opened 
should  be  kept  screened  in  warm  weather.  If  one 
cannot  afford  screens  for  all  such  openings,  those  of 
the  kitchen  and  dining  room  are  the  most  important. 
Any  flies  that  get  into  a  room  should  be  killed.  Great 
pains  should  be  taken  to  keep  flies  from  the  sick. 
Food  exposed  for  sale  in  places  where  flies  can  get  to 
it,  should  not  be  bought.  In  every  way,  all  should  be 
awake  to  the  fact  that  the  fly  is  a  positive  enemy  to 
life  and  health,  and  do  their  part  in  exterminating 
(eks-ter'rm-nat-ing)  him. 

The  Mosquito.  —  This  insect  helps  in  spreading 
malaria,  and  so  is  an  enemy  to  health.  He  breeds  in 
moist  or  swampy  places.  For  this  reason,  yards  and 
neighborhoods  should  be  kept  free  from  pools,  swamps, 
marshes,  and  other  moist  places.  If  oil  is  poured  on 
such  places,  it  prevents  the  breeding  of  mosquitoes. 

Children's  Diseases.  —  Scarlet  fever,  measles,  mumps, 
whooping  cough,  and  chicken  pox  are  some  of  the 
diseases  that  are  much  more  common  to  children  than 
to  adults.  All  of  these  diseases  are  taken  by  being 
with  those  who  have  them,  by  handling  something  that 
they  have  made  use  of,  or  by  taking  the  germs  from 
some  one  else  who  has  done  one  or  both  of  these 
things.  / 


198          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

Scarlet  Fever.  -  -  This  disease  often  begins  with  a 
sore  throat.  Chills  and  headache  may  also  be  present. 
A  fine  scarlet  rash  appears  first  on  the  neck  and  chest, 
and  then  spreads  uniformly  over  the  rest  of  the  body. 
The  skin  is  hot  and  dry,  and  in  severe  cases  the  fever 
is  very  high. 

Measles.  -  -  The  beginning  of  measles  resembles  that 
of  a  severe  cold.  Often  there  is  repeated  sneezing  and 
a  discharge  from  the  nose.  The  eyes  may  be  red  and 
watery.  The  rash  appears  on  the  face  and  neck. 
It  comes  in  patches,  the  skin  between  appearing 
healthy,  but  afterward  spreads  over  the  entire  body. 

Many  children  die  of  both  scarlet  fever  or  measles, 
especially  the  former.  Deafness,  weakness  of  the  eyes, 
and  many  other  serious  permanent  troubles,  often 
follow  each.  For  these  reasons,  they  should  be  care- 
fully avoided. 

Diphtheria.  —  In  diphtheria,  there  are  white  patches 
on  the  inside  of  the  throat.  Often  there  is  difficulty  in 
swallowing.  Like  scarlet  fever  and  measles,  it  needs 
the  immediate  attention  of  a  physician.  Recently 
an  antitoxin  (an'ti-tox'in)  has  been  discovered,  the 
prompt  use  of  which  causes  this  disease  to  be  fatal 
much  less  often  than  it  used  to  be. 

Chicken  Pox.  —  In  chicken  pox  a  rash  usually  ap- 
pears, first  on  the  body  and  then  on  the  head.  This 
may  be  preceded  by  slight  fever  and  vomiting.  In  a 


CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  199 

few  days,  the  blisters  of  rash  dry  up;  then  they  scab 
and  peel  off.  As  a  rule,  one  is  not  very  ill  with  this 
disease  if  he  keeps  from  catching  cold. 

Whooping  Cough. --This  can  always  be  told  by 
severe  coughing  and  the  well-known  whoop  that  always 
attends  it.  The  disease  sometimes  lasts  a  long  time 
and  is  very  trying  and  disagreeable.  For  these  reasons 
one  should  try  to  avoid  taking  it  by  not  playing  with 
children  who  have  the  disease.  No  effort  should  be 
spared  to  keep  a  baby  from  getting  whooping  cough. 

Mumps.  —  In  this  disease  the  glands  below  the  ear 
swell  up,  and  are  so  sore  that  one  cannot  eat  or  swallow 
with  comfort.  Both  sides  of  the  throat  may  swell  at 
the  same  time,  but  more  often  one  side  is  followed  in  a 
few  days  by  the  other.  One  should  stay  quietly  at 
home  until  the  swelling  disappears,  and  be  careful  not 
to  catch  cold. 

Some  people  think  that  some  or  all  of  these  children's 
diseases  are  bound  to  be  had  sometime,  and  that  child- 
hood is  the  best  period.  This  is  a  great  mistake. 
It  is  not  only  far  better,  but  also  perfectly  possible,  not 
to  have  any  of  them. 

Smallpox  and  Vaccination.  —  Before  the  practice  of 
vaccination  (vak'si-na'shun)  was  begun  by  Dr.  Jenner, 
of  England,  in  1798,  smallpox  was  one  of  the  most 
terrible  of  plagues.  In  England  and  Wales,  on  the 
average,  3000  persons  of  every  1,000,000  died  of  small- 


200          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

pox.  Less  than  one  hundred  years  later  the  entire 
number  of  deaths  from  smallpox  in  these  countries  in 
one  year  was  only  fifteen. 

In  many  places,  health  officers  require  children  to  be 
vaccinated  when  they  enter  school,  and  a  second  time 
some  years  later.  Parents  often  oppose  this,  fearing 
injury  to  children.  If  a  child  is  healthy,  a  sore  arm  for 
a  few  days  is,  as  a  rule,  the  only  unpleasant  result. 
Surely  the  remarkable  results  which  history  shows  to 
have  been  accomplished  through  vaccination  should 
justify  this  practice. 

Consumption  (tuberculosis  [tu-ber'cu-lo'sis]  of  the 
lungs).  —  It  is  estimated  that  twelve  people  out  of 
every  hundred  die  of  this  disease.  In  one  year  in  New 
York  State  almost  twice  as  many  people  died  of  con- 
sumption as  of  scarlet  fever,  measles,  smallpox,  typhoid 
fever,  diphtheria,  croup,  and  whooping  cough  together. 
Indeed,  one  need  not  wonder  that  consumption  is  often 
called  the  "  Great  White  Plague." 

The  Cause  of  Consumption.  —  Some  people  think 
that  consumption  is  caused  by  a  cold.  The  cause, 
however,  is  farther  back  than  that.  The  food  and  air 
taken  into  the  body  has  not  produced  enough  vitality. 
Therefore  bacteria  that  have  got  in  have  been  able  to 
increase  rapidly0  Their  rapid  increase  has  produced 
not  only  the  cough  but  also  the  loss  of  flesh,  weakness, 
fever,  night  sweats,  and  other  symptoms  that  attend 


CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  201 

the  disease.  One  great  difficulty  in  fighting  consump- 
tion is  that  people  think  they  have  only  a  cold  until 
the  bacteria  have  too  good  a  start  to  be  easily  stopped. 

The  Prevention  of  Consumption.  —  The  very  best 
way  to  prevent  consumption  is  to  keep  one's  vitality 
high  through  the  use  of  abundant  pure,  cool  air,  plain, 
nourishing  food,  vigorous  exercise,  and  sufficient  rest. 
Then  if  germs  do  get  into  the  body,  they  cannot 
multiply.  Of  course  one  should  also  avoid  taking  the 
germs,  as  far  as  possible. 

Children  of  consumptive  parents,  narrow-chested 
people,  and  those  whose  work  is  indoors,  have  less  power 
to  resist  consumption  germs  than  have  others.  They 
should  take  special  pains  to  sleep  with  wide-open  win- 
dows, to  eat  only  nourishing  food,  and  to  practice  deep- 
breathing  exercises  at  least  twice  a  day.  If  these 
three  things  are  faithfully  and  regularly  done,  almost 
any  one  can  keep  from  being  a  victim  of  the  "  Great 
White  Plague." 

The  Cure  of  Consumption.  —  No  medicine  will  cure 
consumption.  Being  out  of  doors  in  daytime;  sleep- 
ing out  of  doors,  or  indoors  with  the  best  possible  ven- 
tilation, at  night;  eating  freely  of  eggs,  milk,  olive  oil, 
fruit,  meat,  and  other  nutritious  but  easily  digested 
foods,  are  the  effective  cure.  Alcoholic  drinks  do  not 
aid  but  retard  one's  recovery.  The  same  is,  as  a  rule, 
true  of  patent  medicines. 


202 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


A  change  of  climate  to  mountain  or  other  regions 
where  the  air  is  dry  is  usually  very  helpful.  One  of  the 
greatest  benefits  from  going  to  such  a  place  is  that  one 

becomes  impressed 
with  the  value  of 
out-of-door  air  and 
nourishing  food. 
He  sees  others,  too 
sick  to  walk,  may- 
be, sitting  out  of 
doors  all  day,  and 
hears  that  they 
sleep  with  wide- 
open  windows.  He 
learns  the  value  of 
an  abundance  of 
eggs,  milk,  and 
similar  foods  in  his 
diet,  and  the  great 
benefit  of  complete 
rest,  if  he  chances 
to  have  fever. 

The  main  things, 
however,  are  the  out-of-door  air,  nourishing  food,  and 
rest.  It  is  far  better  to  have  these  with  good  care 
and  contentment  at  home  than  to  be  poorly  cared  for 
and  unhappy  in  the  best  of  climates  elsewhere. 


Raybrook   Sanitarium,   Adirondacks. 
porch  in  cold  weather. 


On  the 


CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  203 

Several  states  now  have  sanatoria  (san'S-to  fri-a) 
for  consumptives  in  regions  of  high  altitude.  Many 
cities  have  day  camps  where  poor  consumptives  can  get 
pure  air  and  nourishing  food,  living  out  of  doors  in 
tents,  often  free  of  charge.  Public  and  private  societies 
are  making  great  efforts  to  have  everybody  understand 
how  to  prevent  and  to  cure  consumption.  This  has 
already  resulted  in  largely  decreasing  the  disease,  and 
will,  it  is  hoped,  in  time  stop  its  ravages. 

POINTS   FOR   SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  Many  diseases  are  caused  by  minute  plants  or  ani- 
mals multiplying  rapidly  in  the  body.     These  germs  are  not 
likely  to  multiply  fast  enough  to  do  harm  in  healthy,  vigorous 
tissue. 

2.  The  best  way  to  keep  free  from  germ  diseases  is  to 
keep  the  body  strong  and  healthy  through  the  use  of  pure 
air,  plain  food,  pure  water,  exercise;  and  rest. 

3.  House  flies  are  positive  enemies  to   life  and  health. 
They  carry  disease  germs  from  filth  and  deposit  them  where 
they  may  get  into  the  human  body.     Flies  breed  in  manure 
and  other  filth.     Pains  should   be  taken  to   prevent   their 
breeding.     Windows  and  doors  should  be  screened  to  keep 
flies  out  of  homes,  and  all  that  get  in  should  be  killed. 

4.  In  consumption  and  other  diseases  of  the  air  passages, 
the  germs  are  in  the  sputum.     This  should  be  burned,  and 
all  possible  effort  should  be  made  to  keep  the  germs  from  a 
sick  person  from  getting  to  any  one  else. 

5.  Sunlight  helps  to  destroy  disease  germs.     Therefore 
we  should  let  the  sunlight  freely  into  our  windows,  and  always 
prefer  a  sunny  room  to  one  that  gets  little  or  no  sunlight. 


204          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

6.  It  is  both  possible  and  desirable  to  avoid  all  of  the 
so-called  children's  diseases.     Any  of  them  may  leave  per- 
manent injury.     Scarlet  fever  and  measles  are  especially 
likely  to  do  so. 

7.  Consumption  is  the  greatest  destroyer  of  human  life. 
It  is  not  caused  by  a  cold,  but  through  a  loss  of  vitality  al- 
lowing bacteria  to  multiply.     It  cannot  be  cured  by  medicine. 
Cool,  out-of-door  air,  plain,  nutritious  food,  and  rest  are  the 
best  cures  for  this  disease. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  disease  germs  or  microbes? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  size  of  disease  germs? 

3.  How  do  they  multiply? 

4 .  Tell  the  best  way  to  prevent  these  germs  from  multiply- 
ing in  our  bodies. 

5.  In  what  condition  is  the  body,  as  a  rule,  when  they 
get  started? 

6.  Tell  two  ways  these  germs  may  be  killed  when  out- 
side of  the  body. 

7.  In  what  diseases  are  the  germs  in  the  sputum? 

8.  Tell  what  pains  should  be  taken  to  avoid  their  get- 
ting from  a  sick  person  to  some  one  else. 

9.  In  what  are  the  germs  of  typhoid  fever  and  some  other 
diseases? 

10.  How  are  such  diseases  often  spread? 

11.  What  is  said  about  the  way  scarlet  fever  and  other 
disease  germs  spread? 

12.  Tell  how  disease  germs  may  spread  through  milk. 

13.  Tell  several  easy  ways  in  which  you  may  avoid 
disease  germs. 

14.  How  may  a  fly  spread  disease  germs?    Tell  all  you 
can  about  how  to  prevent  flies  from  breeding. 


CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  205 

15.  Tell   how  a   mosquito   spreads   malaria   and   other 
diseases. 

16.  Name  five  diseases  that  are  more  common  to  children 
than  to  adults. 

17.  What  is  said  of  scarlet  fever?  of  measles? 

18.  Why  should  both  scarlet  fever  and  measles  be  care- 
fully avoided? 

19.  Tell  what  is  said  of  diphtheria;  of  chicken  pox;   of 
whooping  cough;  of  mumps. 

20.  What  is  said  of  the  correctness  of  the  idea  that  every 
one  must  have  these  children's  diseases  sometime,  and  that 
childhood  is  the  best  period? 

21.  How  much  did  smallpox  decrease  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  practice  of  vaccination  in  1798? 

22.  Why  should  parents  not  oppose  the  vaccination  of 
healthy  children? 

23.  How  many  people  out  of  every  hundred  die  of  con- 
sumption? 

24.  What  is  said  of  the  cause  of  consumption? 

25.  What  is  the  very  best  way  to  prevent  consumption? 

26.  Tell  three  classes  of  persons  who  are  the  most  likely 
to  have  consumption;    state  three  things  they  should  do 
to  keep  themselves  from  becoming  victims  of  the  "  Great 
White  Plague." 

27.  What  is  said  of  air  in  the  cure  of  consumption?  of 
food?  of  alcoholic  drinks?    of  patent  medicines? 

28.  What  change  of  climate  is  usually  good  for  a  con- 
sumptive?    State  one  of  the  greatest  benefits  from  going  to 
such  a  climate. 

29.  What  movements  have  been  started  that  will  greatly 
decrease  the  ravages  of  consumption? 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

THE    CARE    OF   THE    BODY 

EXERCISE    AND    BODILY    VIGOR 

If  a  boy  owns  a  pony,  he  likes  to  have  it  look  as  fine 
and  be  as  graceful  and  swift  as  possible.  To  this  end 
the  pony  is  carefully  fed,  watered,  cleaned,  trained,  and 
exercised.  No  trouble  is  too  great,  if  the  little  animal 
will  only  be  made  handsomer  and  more  useful.  There 
are  few  children  to  whom  a  fine,  active  pony  would  not 
be  a  most  welcome  present.  There  are  very  few,  too, 
who  would  not  take  the  best  care  of  one,  if  they  were 
so  fortunate  as  to  receive  such  a  gift. 

Not  many  children  can  have  ponies.  But  all  have 
bodies  of  their  own  that  are  much  more  useful,  and  of 
far  greater  value.  Shall  they  become  healthy,  strong, 
and  graceful,  or  sickly,  weak,  and  awkward?  This 
will  depend  largely  upon  what  each  makes  up  his  mind 
to  have,  and  how  well  he  cares  for  and  trains  himself 
to  that  end. 

We  have  learned  how  we  can  best  use  food,  air,  and 
water  in  building  our  bodies.  We  have  found  out  how 
to  care  for  our  eyes  and  ears,  and  how  to  guard  our 
bodies  from  accidents  and  disease.  We  have  also 

206 


EXERCISE  AND  BODILY   VIGOR  207 

learned  why  the  brain  and  nervous  system  must  have 
plenty  of  rest,  and  why  the  blood  must  keep  carrying 
oxygen  and  nutriment  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  By 
making  use  of  this  knowledge  in  daily  habits,  almost 
everybody  can  be  healthy. 

But  we  should  not  be  satisfied  to  have  our  pony 
merely  healthy.  We  should  want  him  strong,  active, 
and  graceful;  nor  would  simply  proper  feeding,  water- 
ing, and  cleaning  make  him  so.  He  would  gain  and 
keep  strength,  activity  (ak-tiv'i-ty),  and  grace  only 
by  thorough  training  and  regular  exercise.  Likewise, 
boys  and  girls  and  men  and  women  become  and  remain 
strong,  active,  vigorous,  and  graceful  through  careful 
training  and  regular  exercise. 

Benefits  of  Exercise.  —  Our  muscles  grow  hard  and 
strong  through  use;  if  not  actively  used,  they  become 
soft  and  flabby.  If  we  do  not  use  our  bodies  in  active 
work  or  exercise,  the  circulation  of  blood  in  some  of 
the  organs  may  become  sluggish,  and  so  they  will  not 
do  their  work  well,  and  may  gradually  (grad'u-al-ly) 
become  diseased.  If  certain  muscles  are  used  but  little, 
we  do  not  get  good  control  of  them,  and  hence  our 
movements  will  not  be  graceful  when  they  are  used. 

Deep-breathing  Exercises.  —  The  more  oxygen  any 
part  of  the  body  receives,  the  better  able  it  is  to  do  its 
work.  Therefore  deep-breathing  exercises  are  among 
the  very  best  for  all  to  practice,  since  they  bring  an 


208         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE   OF  THE  BODY 

increased  supply  of  oxygen  to  the  body,  and  also  aid 
one  in  forming  the  habit  of  taking  more  air  into  the 
lungs  in  the  ordinary  (6r'di-na-ry)  breathing.  The 
two  following  are  especially  good,  because  they  are  easy 
to  learn  and  can  be  conveniently  (kon-ven'yent-ly) 
used. 

(1)  Breathe  in  all  the  air  you  possibly  can  through 
the  nose  in  one  breath,  and  then  let  it  out  slowly 
through  a  very  small  opening  in  the  mouth.     This  may 
be  practiced  while  standing,  walking,  sitting,  or  even 
while  lying  in  bed.     The  chief  point  is  to  be  in  pure, 
cool  air. 

(2)  Stand  with  your  hands  above  your  head,  and 
then  try  to  touch  the  floor,  bending  from  the  waist 
but  not  bending  the  knees.    As  you  bend,  breathe  out 
all  the  air  possible,  and  breathe  in  all  you  can  while 
returning  to  an  erect  position. 

These  and  many  other  exercises  will  both  increase  the 
capacity  (ka-pas'i-ty)  of  the  lungs  and  strengthen  the 
breathing  muscles.  Since  ability  to  run  or  skate  fast, 
as  well  as  strength  and  skill  in  most  active  games, 
depend  largely  upon  breathing  capacity,  children  will 
see  that  it  is  well  worth  while  to  practice  these  exercises. 
It  is  also  true  that  people  subject  to  colds  or  almost 
any  illness  can  greatly  strengthen  themselves,  and  often 
gain  good  health  by  faithfully  practicing  deep  breath- 
ing. Ten  minutes7  practice  twice  a  day,  at  night  before 


EXERCISE  AND  BODILY   VIGOR  209 

retiring  and  upon  rising  in  the  morning,  will  often  result 
in  great  benefit. 

Games  and  Sports.  —  Baseball,  basket  ball,  tennis, 
bicycle  riding,  swimming,  and  skating  are  all  fine 
exercise  for  the  lungs  as  well  as  for  the  rest  of  the  body. 
Of  course  out-of-door  skating  is  better  than  indoor, 
because  of  the  purer  air.  Any  of  the  numerous  games 
that  require  running  are  very  good  for  developing 
strength  and  quickness.  Rowing  is  excellent,  espe- 
cially for  the  chest,  back,  lungs,  arms,  and  legs,  and 
because  it  develops  both  sides  of  the  body  equally  well. 
Dancing,  marching,  and  folk  games  help  to  make  one 
graceful;  but  dancing  in  a  crowded,  ill-ventilated  room 
is  likely  to  be  of  greater  injury  than  benefit. 

Exercises  to  help  Digestion.  —  The  second  of  the 
breathing  exercises  given  above  is  excellent  in  helping 
digestion,  because  it  strengthens  the  muscles  of  the 
abdomen,  and  also  improves  the  circulation  in  the  in- 
testines, liver,  and  other  organs.  For  similar  reasons 
all  bending,  turning,  and  stretching  exercises  are  likely 
to  assist  digestion.  Massaging  (ma-sazh'ing)  (rub- 
bing or  kneading)  any  part  of  the  body  that  is  not 
working  well,  or  that  is  in  pain,  is  often  helpful,  because 
it  improves  the  circulation  of  blood  in  that  part.  Of 
course  running,  walking,  and  all  games  are  likely  to 
improve  digestion,  because  of  their  good  effect  upon  the 
circulation.  * 


210          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

Walking.  --  Walking  takes  one  out  of  doors,  and  is 
beneficial  in  other  ways.  Of  course  the  faster  a  person 
walks,  the  greater  the  effect  upon  his  circulation.  In 
walking  we  should  be  careful  not  to  let  our  weight  fall 
upon  the  heels.  This  habit  is  stiff  and  awkward,  and 
besides  it  jars  the  spine  and  brain.  Instead  we  should 
let  the  ball  (center)  of  the  foot  strike  the  ground  first. 
This  makes  walking  both  easier  and  more  graceful. 

Children  should  not  ride  to  school  or  anywhere  else 
in  a  street  car  or  other  closed  vehicle,  when  they  have 
time  and  strength  to  walk.  Instead  of  tiring  them, 
such  exercise  in  the  out-of-door  air  will  make  them 
better  able  to  do  good  school  work. 

Bookworms.  —  Some  children  become  so  fond  of 
reading  and  study  that  they  forget  to  play.  Often, 
too,  they  really  think  they  are  doing  something  wise 
and  worthy  of  praise  because  the  older  members  of 
the  family  speak  of  it  as  a  sure  sign  of  being  a  good 
scholar,  and  hence  a  successful  man  or  woman.  This  is, 
to  say  the  least,  a  very  mistaken  idea. 

It  is  wise  to  study  faithfully  in  school  and  during 
the  required  hours  at  home;  but  in  free  time,  active 
play  and  vigorous  exercise  should  be  the  rule  for  those 
who  really  want  to  succeed  in  life.  A  brain  crammed 
with  information  (in-for-ma'shun)  is  of  little  value 
without  a  healthy  body  to  make  use  of  it. 

It  often  happens  that  among  the  pupils  who  stand 


EXEBC1SE  AND  BODILY   VIGOR  211 

highest  in  a  class,  there  will  be  several  who  are  nervous 
and  pale  and  sickly  in  appearance.  While  this  may  be 
caused  by  improper  food  and  lack  of  pure  air,  it  often 
results  from  want  of  play  and  exercise.  They  are  de- 
veloping the  mind  at  the  expense  of  the  body. 

All  children  who  have  no  liking  for  out-of-door  games 
should  be  taught  to  play  and,  if  necessary,  be  made 
to  do  so.  Indeed,  if  they  but  realized  what  a  good 
effect  such  fun  and  exercise  would  have  upon  their 
future  health  and  usefulness,  they  would  very  likely  be 
the  most  earnest  about  out-of-door  play. 

Delicate  Children.  —  Some  children  are  too  weak  to 
play  well.  It  is  natural  not  to  enjoy  doing  what  we 
cannot  do  at  least  fairly  well.  Therefore  such  children 
do  not  like  games,  and  even  find  them  unsafe.  Never- 
theless, they  are  the  very  ones  who  should  persevere 
the  most  in  training  themselves  to  become  strong  and 
active. 

For  delicate  children,  the  first  important  thing  is  to 
make  sure  that  they  are  supplying  their  bodies  with 
the  right  kind  of  food  and  the  purest  possible  air.  Then 
deep-breathing  exercises  should  be  regularly  practiced 
several  times  daily.  Gymnastic  exercises  learned  in 
school,  fast  walking,  and  easy  running  may  be  practiced, 
little  by  little,  to  gain  more  strength  and  facility. 
Then  by  persevering  in  out-of-door  games  as  far  as 
strength  will  permit,  they  will  rapidly  improve  both  in 


212          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

health,  and  in  vigor  and  skill.  The  chief  thing  is  to 
determine  (de-ter'min)  not  to  give  up  until  one  is 
strong  and  vigorous,  and  then  to  keep  trying  until  the 
goal  is  won. 

A  plant  in  clay  soil  in  a  shady  part  of  the  garden 
grows  but  little.  Transplant  it  to  good  soil  in  a 
place  where  sunshine  and  water  are  plentiful,  and  the 
change  for  better  in  its  growth  will  be  almost  marvelous. 

Many  delicate  persons  are  like  such  plants;  and  the 
right  kind  of  food,  air,  water,  exercise,  and  rest  will  in 
time  bring  about  a  similar  change  in  health.  This 
may  seem  quite  impossible;  but  it  has  happened  so 
often  that  the  truth  of  the  statement  may  be  easily 
proven.  We  must  not  be  satisfied  to  be  delicate  plants. 
To  say  nothing  of  the  increased  power  for  usefulness, 
there  is  far  more  fun  in  being  strong  and  hardy. 

Girls  and  Exercise.  —  Some  girls  have  an  idea  that 
it  is  fine  for  them  to  be  delicate  and  flower-like.  They 
seem  to  think  that  somehow  it  makes  them  more  inter- 
esting and  attractive.  Pale  complexion,  soft  muscles, 
and  small  waists  are  signs  of  ill  health  and  not  of 
beauty.  The  color,  muscle,  and  grace  that  active 
out-of-door  games  and  exercises  will  give  girls  are  their 
greatest  possible  beauty.  Such  .exercises  will  also 
better  fit  them  for  the  duties  of  life. 

Adults  and  Exercise.  —  After  leaving  school  and 
beginning  work,  many  give  up  play  and  exercise. 


EXERCISE  AND  BODILY   VIGOR  213 

After  a  time,  a  little  run  to  catch  a  street  car  will  get 
them  out  of  breath.  Any  extra  physical  effort  makes 
them  sore  and  lame,  since  their  muscles  have  become 
soft  and  flabby  from  lack  of  use. 

Fifteen  minutes,  twice  a  day,  at  night  and  in  the 
morning,  with  Indian  clubs,  dumb-bells,  chest  weights, 
or  merely  practicing  breathing,  bending,  arm  and  leg 
exercises,  will  keep  the  muscles  of  such  persons  in  fair 
condition.  A  few  miles'  brisk  walk  to  and  from  the 
place  of  business  will  likewise  be  of  great  benefit. 

Often  nothing  of  this  kind  is  done  simply  through 
lack  of  thought.  Then  one  gets  into  the  habit  of  not 
exerting  himself,  and  exercise  becomes  distasteful. 
One  should  remember  that  it  pays  to  keep  the  muscles 
hard  through  regular  exercise.  In  the  first  place,  there 
is  much  satisfaction  in  being  strong  and  in  being  able 
to  do  and  to  endure.  Then  by  keeping  vigorous  mus- 
cles and  active  circulation,  we  are  best  able  to  prevent 
nervousness,  disease,  and  much  else  that  is  both 
uncomfortable  and  expensive. 

Home  Gymnasiums. — When  the  weather  permits, 
out-of-door  games  and  exercise  are  always  better  than 
exercise  indoors.  For  this  reason  it  is  of  doubtful 
value  for  children  to  join  a  public  gymnasium,  if  they 
go  there  at  times  favorable  for  out-of-door  play.  How- 
ever, a  home  gymnasium  with  a  horizontal  bar,  chest 
weights,  swinging  rings,  trapeze,  dumb-bells,  and 


214 


THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 


Indian  clubs  makes   exercise   in   unpleasant  weather 
more  attractive. 

The  Right  Ideal  for  the  Body.  —  A  fond  parent  some- 
times says,  "  I  cannot  do  too  much  for  my  child. " 
By  that  he  means  that  he  will  spare  no  thought,  or 
pains,  or  labor  on  the  child's  training  and  education. 


A  public  school  athletic  meet. 

To  him  his  child  is  the  best  gift  of  God.     Only  in  its 
highest  development  will  the  parent's  greatest  possible 
joy  and  satisfaction  be  realized.    Therefore  his  ideal 
for  the  child  is  to  make  all  of  it  that  he  possibly  can. 
This  is  the  ideal  which  every  child  should  have  for 


EXERCISE  AND  BODILY    VIGOR  215 

his  own  body.  "My  greatest  possible  usefulness  and 
happiness  in  life  depend  largely  upon  what  I  make  of 
my  body.  It  is  the  most  wonderful  of  created  things. 
It  is  God's  best  gift  to  me.  How  ungrateful  I  should 
be  not  to  keep  so  marvelous  a  gift  pure,  clean,  and  un- 
defiled;  how  thoughtless  and  negligent,  not  to  make 
of  this  body  all  that  God  in  His  goodness  and  wisdom 
*has  made  possible  for  it  to  become." 

With  such  an  ideal  earnestly  and  perseveringly  fol- 
lowed, there  are,  indeed,  few  boys  and  girls  who  would 
not  know  the  great  joy  and  usefulness  that  is  possible 
with  a  well-developed  mind  in  a  healthy,  capable  body. 

The  Right  Ideal  for  Home  and  Country.  —  It  would, 
to  say  the  least,  be  selfish,  if  we  were  content  simply 
to  gain  health  and  strength  for  ourselves.  Knowing 
their  great  value,  we  should  want  all  our  friends  to 
enjoy  them,  too.  In  fact,  whatever  can  be  done  in  our 
city  or  village  that  will  tend  to  give  better  health  to 
everybody  should  receive  our  earnest  support. 

A  pure  water  supply,  the  best  disposal  (dis-pos'al) 
of  sewage  and  garbage,  clean  streets,  tidy  homes,  beauti- 
ful shade  trees,  numerous  parks, — all  make  for  better 
health  in  a  city.  We  know  that  the  body  should  be 
developed  and  trained  along  with  the  mind.  There- 
fore roomy,  well-ventilated  school  buildings  with  ample 
playgrounds,  good  gymnasium,  convenient  baths,  and 
large  swimming  pool  are  needed. 


216          THE  BUILDING   AND    CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

In  many  cities  and  villages,  health  officers  are  doing 
excellent  work  in  preventing  the  spread  of  disease 
and  in  improving  the  conditions  of  living  in  many  ways. 
By  analyzing  (an-a-liz'mg)  the  milk  that  is  sold  and 
inspecting  the  dairies  that  furnish  it,  they  are  saving 
the  precious  lives  of  many  babies,  and  adding  to  the 
strength  of  many  others.  Should  such  officers,  in  the 
place  where  we  live,  be  careless  or  negligent  about 
these  important  matters,  we  should  do  our  best  to  in- 
duce people  to  make  these  careless  officers  attend 
properly  to  their  duties. 

Public  officers  are  trying  to  compel  those  who  manu- 
facture food  to  furnish  that  which  is  pure.  Through 
smoke  consumers  (kon-sum'erz)  and  in  other  ways, 
efforts  are  being  made  for  purer  air  in  cities.  "  Fresh 
Air  Missions  "  and  "  Day  Nurseries  "  (nurs'er-iz),  as 
well  as  purer  and  cleaner  milk,  are  counting  for  the 
better  health  of  babies  and  little  children. 

Public  playgrounds,  where  children  can  enjoy  games 
and  learn  to  develop  their  bodies  under  wise  direction, 
are  being  started  in  many  cities.  Public  baths  for  the 
use  of  those  who  have  not  such  convenience  (kon-ven'- 
yens)  at  home  are  being  built.  Public  School  Athletic 
Leagues,  whose  purpose  is  to  interest  all  children  in 
developing  their  bodies,  rather  than  to  train  a  few 
skilled  athletes,  are  being  started.  Associations  (as- 
so-si-a'shunz)  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  tuber- 


EXERCISE  AND  BODILY   VIGOR  217 

culosis   are    being   organized    (or'gan-Izd)   by  earnest 
physicians  and  charitable  citizens. 

All  these  movements  make  for  better  health  and 
greater  happiness.  We  should  all  work  earnestly  to 
advance  these  good  causes  in  the  city  or  village  in  which 
we  live.  As  true  lovers  of  health  and  usefulness 
may  our  ideal  be  Good  Health  for  Home  and  Country. 
May  we  also  do  all  in  our  power  to  spread  knowledge  of 
the  simple  habits  that  will  tend  to  make  this  precious 
possession  a  more  universal  one. 

POINTS  FOR   SPECIAL  STUDY 

1 .  Through  exercise  we  keep  our  muscles  hard  and  strong, 
and  the  organs  of  our  body  active  and  healthy. 

2.  Deep-breathing  exercises   are   among    the  most    im- 
portant for  all.      Through  these,  we  may  gain  strength  for 
work  and  play,  and  help  rid  ourselves  of  colds  and  other 
disagreeable  illness. 

3.  It  is  foolish  to  develop  the  mind  at  the  expense  of 
the  body.     It  is  far  more  important  for  delicate  children  to 
learn  to  like  play  and  games  and  to  develop  bodily  health 
and  strength  than  it  is  to  stand  high  in  their  studies. 

4.  It  should  be  the  ideal  of  both  boys  and  girls  to  develop 
strong,  healthy  bodies  through  exercise.     They  should  also 
aim  to  become  fond  of  certain  games  and  exercises,  and  to 
make  use  of  them  all  their  lives. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  three  benefits  of  exercise. 

2.  Why  are  deep-breathing  exercises  of  especial  value? 

3.  Describe    the    first    deep-breathing   exercise    that   is 
given;  the  second  deep-breathing  exercise. 


218         THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

4.  Besides  increased  power  in  play  and  work,  what  other 
benefits  may  come  from  practicing  deep-breathing  exercises? 

5.  Mention  several  exercises  that  are  excellent  for  the 
lungs  as  well  as  for  the  rest  of  the  body. 

6.  Why  is    skating    out  of   doors    better  than    indoor 
skating?     Tell  why  rowing  is  excellent  exercise. 

7.  What  is  said  of  dancing,  marching,  and  folk  games? 

8.  Mention  some  exercises  that  are  helpful  to  digestion, 
and  state  why. 

9.  Tell  what  is  said  of  rubbing  and  massage. 

10.  Why  should  one  be  careful  to  step  on  the  ball  of  the 
foot  when  walking?     Tell  all  that  is  said  of  walking. 

11.  How    do    some    children     become    " bookworms"? 
State  why  this  is  unwise. 

12.  Mention  the  first  things  of  importance  for  delicate 
children  to  look  out  for. 

13.  What  exercises  are  especially  important  for  delicate 
children  to  practice? 

14.  How  may  delicate  children  gradually  become  strong 
and  skillful  in  games? 

15.  How  are  delicate  children  like  plants  in  poor  soil  in 
a  shady  part  of  the  garden? 

16.  What  is  said  concerning  girls  and  exercise? 

17.  State  the  effects  upon  adults  of  giving  up  play  and 
exercise. 

18.  How  may  adults  keep  their  muscles  hard  and    their 
bodies  in  good  physical  condition? 

19.  Tell  what  is  said  about  home  gymnasiums. 

20.  What  is  the  right  ideal  for  every  child  to  have  for  his 
body?  for  home  and  country? 

21.  Tell  some  good  things  health  officers  are  accomplish- 
ing.    Mention  several  public  movements  to  improve  health. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 


THE    CARE    OF    LITTLE    CHILDREN 

Many  children  have  dear  little  brothers  and  sisters 
at  home  of  whom  they  often  take  care.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  these  helpless  little  ones  are  injured 
while  in  charge  of  an  older  child.  Of  course  this  is 
not  caused  by  want  of  love. 
As  a  rule,  it  is  due  to  not 
knowing  better  or  to  not  be- 
ing careful.  How  precious 
these  dear  little  babies  are, 
all  know.  All,  too,  will  be 
eager  to  learn  how  best  to 
guard  and  keep  them  from 
harm. 

Food  for  Children.  -  -  Until 
a  child  is  one  year  old,  he 
should  receive  no  solid  food 
of  any  kind,  as  the  digestive  organs  are  not  yet  ready 
to  take  care  of  any  food  not  liquid.  Now  whatever 
gets  into  little  babies'  hands  soon  finds  its  way  to  their 
mouths.  For  this  reason,  babies  should  not  be  allowed 
to  handle  fruit,  bread,  cake,  or  any  other  solid  food. 

219 


Little  Marjorie. 


220          THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

For  children  from  one  to  two  years  old,  the  best 
foods  are  fresh  milk,  well-cooked  cereal,  dry  toast,  or 
unsweetened  zwieback  (tzwe'bak),  broth,  and  coddled 
eggs.  They  may  also  be  given  orange  juice,  and  phy- 
sicians sometimes  advise  a  little  prune  pulp,  baked 
apple,  or  apple  sauce.  Great  pains  should  be  taken  to 
buy  pure  milk  and  to  keep  it  fresh  and  sweet. 

During  the  third  year,  finely  cut  chicken,  lamb,  or 
beef  may  be  eaten.  So  also  may  thoroughly  boiled 
rice,  baked  potato,  spinach,  asparagus  tips,  celery, 
carrots,  squash,  and  string  beans;  but  all  such  vege- 
tables should  be  thoroughly  cooked.  For  dessert 
junket,  custard,  and  plain  rice  or  tapioca  pudding 
are  excellent.  Ice  cream,  too,  is  good,  if  it  is  eaten 
slowly.  Milk  is  the  best  drink,  and  weak  cocoa  is  the 
next  best.  Neither  coffee  nor  tea  should  be  given  to 
children. 

Peas,  beans,  nuts,  and  dried  fruits  should  not  be 
eaten  until  children  can  be  impressed  with  the  need  of 
chewing  them  thoroughly.  For  the  same  reason  pop- 
corn should  be  avoided.  The  fascinating  popcorn  and 
peanut  wagon  has  had  a  large  share  in  weakening  the 
good  digestion  of  many  city  children.  Both  popcorn 
and  peanuts  are  hearty  foods,  and  should  not  be  taken 
soon  after  a  full  meal. 

After  the  age  of  three,  children  may  be  given  a 
piece  or  two  of  candy  for  dessert  at  the  midday  meaL 


THE  CARE   OF  LITTLE   CHILDREN  221 

Sirup,  jams,  pies,  rich  cakes,  and  puddings,  and  all 
fried  foods  should  be  avoided  until  children  are  older. 
In  fact,  they  should  never  be  eaten  except  in  small 
amounts  by  any  one. 

Water  for  Little  Children.  —  Babies  should  be  trained 
to  take  water  between  nursings.  In  very  hot  weather, 
they  should  be  given  less  food  and  more  water  than 
at  other  times  of  the  year.  If  there  is  any  doubt  as 
to  the  purity  of  the  drinking  water,  it  should  be  boiled 
and  cooled  before  being  given  to  any  members  of  the 
family,  especially  to  little  children. 

Giving  Medicine.  —  Some  people  give  medicine  to 
children  very  frequently.  Often  this  is  done  for  little 
or  no  reason  except  that  the  child  is  fretful.  It  is 
quite  natural  for  most  babies  to  cry  more  or  less.  In 
fact,  this  is  one  of  the  ways  they  get  exercise.  Brac- 
ing air,  proper  food,  and  pure  water  are  the  best  rem- 
edies for  all;  and  children  who  have  these,  will  be 
much  better  off,  as  a  rule,  without  drugs.  It  is  a 
good  plan  not  to  give  medicine  at  all,  unless  advised 
to  do  so  by  a  physician. 

Baby's  Outings.  —  One  of  the  chief  duties  of  the 
older  children  with  reference  to  baby  is  to  take  him 
for  an  outing.  Now  most  babies  have  the  habit  of 
throwing  their  covering  off,  even  in  cold  weather. 
On  this  account,  much  patience  is  required  to  keep 
the  little  things  properly  protected  from  the  colds 


222          THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE   OF  THE  BODY 

and  other  illness  that  often  follow  exposure  to  the 
weather. 

Especial  care  should  also  be  taken  to  protect  the 
eyes  of  infants  from  the  sun  or  other  bright  light. 
Often  this  can  be  done  by  adjusting  the  carriage  top, 
or  by  changing  the  position  of  the  carriage.  The 
sight  of  many  children  has  been  injured  for  life  by 
lack  of  protection  of  this  kind  in  babyhood. 

In  summer  and  early  autumn,  any  time  from  7  A.M. 
until  sunset  is  good  for  baby  to  be  out  of  doors.  In 
winter  or  spring,  from  10  or  11  A.M.  to  3  P.M.  is  the 
best  time;  but  severe  winds  should  be  avoided  any 
time  of  day.  The  practice  of  having  baby  sleep  in 
his  carriage  on  a  well-protected  part  of  the  veranda 
is  excellent.  By  so  doing,  he  can  have  the  purest  and 
most  bracing  air  several  hours  of  the  day.  This  prac- 
tice has  been  rapidly  growing  in  favor  because,  through 
it,  many  sickly  babies  have  become  well  and  strong. 
However,  some  one  should  always  be  near  enough  to 
see  that  the  covering  is  kept  in  place,  and  that  the 
little  one  is  in  every  way  comfortable. 

Lifting  Children.  —  In  .  lifting  a  young  baby  the 
right  hand  should  grasp  its  clothing  just  below  the  feet, 
and  the  left  hand  should  be  slipped  beneath  the 
baby's  body  to  its  head.  The  back  should  always  be 
supported  while  young  babies  are  being  carried  or 
held. 


THE  CARE  OF  LITTLE  CHILDREN  223 

In  lifting  a  child  who  is  old  enough  to  run  about, 
the  hands  should  be  placed  under  its  arms.  It  should 
never  be  lifted  by  the  hands  or  wrists,  as  injury  may 
easily  be  done. 

Falls. --There  is  a  space  on  the  upper  part  of 
babies'  skulls  that  does  not  harden  until  they  are 
about  a  year  and  a  half  old.  This  is  commonly  called 
the  "  soft  spot."  A  hard  blow  near  this  spot  is  likely 
to  be  fatal.  Little  ones  have  been  instantly  killed  by 
falling  and  striking  the  head.  In  many  schools  there 
are  children  who  have  very  little  or  no  power  to  learn. 
Often  they  go  on  from  grade  to  grade  on  account  of 
their  size,  and  because  they  learn  as  much  in  one  class 
as  in  another.  If  there  is  a  school  for  defectives, 
they  are  sent  there.  Children  are  sometimes  among 
these  defectives  simply  because  they  were  so  unfor- 
tunate as  to  get  a  hard  fall  in  babyhood. 

Keeping  Baby  from  injuring  Himself.  —  It  is  not 
uncommon  for  little  children  to  choke  to  death  from 
something  lodging  in  the  throat.  On  this  account 
they  should  not  be  allowed  to  handle  buttons,  marbles, 
or  anything  that  can  be  readily  swallowed.  Play- 
things from  which  small  pieces  can  be  broken  or  bitten 
should  also  be  avoided. 

Babies  should  not  be  allowed  to  handle  anything 
that  is  sharp  or  pointed.  Painful  wounds  have  been 
caused,  and  the  use  of  an  eye  or  an  ear  lost  by  such 


224          THE  BUILDING  AND   CARE  OF  THE  BODY 

carelessness,  for  babies,  of  course,  know  no  better  than 
to  harm  themselves. 

The  so-called  "  pacifiers  "  which  so  many  children 
are  given  are  likely  to  cause  the  mouth  to  become 
misshapen,  and  they  also  afford  a  lodging  place  for 
germs.  For  these  reasons  they  should  not  be  used. 
An  ivory  ring  or  a  silver  spoon  to  bite,  now  and  then, 
will  give  comfort  and  do  no  harm. 

Walking.  —  Infants  should  not  be  encouraged  to 
stand  or  to  walk  until  they  make  attempts  of  their 
own  accord,  or  show  other  evidence  of  having  enough 
strength.  As  a  rule,  they  will  try  to  stand  and  to 
walk  about  the  age  of  one  year,  and  sometimes  even 
three  or  more  months  before.  At  no  time  should  they 
be  urged  to  do  more  than  they  seem  to  have  strength 
for.  Standing  or  walking  before  the  legs  and  feet  are 
strong  may  cause  bow  legs  and  make  the  body  less 
beautiful.  These  practices  may  also  break  down  the 
natural  arch  of  the  foot,  thus  causing  weakness  for  a 
lifetime. 

Playing  with  Babies.  —  Children  under  six  months 
old  should  not  be  played  with,  for  they  ought  at  all 
times  to  be  kept  as  quiet  and  undisturbed  as  possible. 
Trying  to  make  young  babies  smile,  attracting  their 
attention  in  any  way,  tossing  them  up  in  the  air,  and 
other  practices  that  are  intended  to  please  or  to  show 
baby  off,  may  really  injure  him.  In  fact,  the  same 


THE  CARE   OF  LITTLE   CHILDREN  225 

thing  is  more  or  less  true  of  all  children  until  they  are 
strong  enough  to  run  about.  Gentleness  and  lack  of 
excitement  are  indeed  the  very  best  conditions  for  all 
small  children.  Playing  hard  just  before  going  to 
bed  is  likely  to  make  any  child  nervous  and  wakeful. 

Little  Children  and  Diseases.  —  Little  children  are 
very  likely  to  take  colds,  measles,  scarlet  fever,  and 
other  diseases.  For  this  reason,  they  should  not  be 
taken  in  street  cars  or  other  closed  public  conveyances 
in  winter.  Crowded  stores  and  other  places  where 
there  is  likely  to  be  impure  air  should  also  be  avoided. 

Children  should  not  be  kissed  on  the  mouth,  as  they 
may  catch  disease  in  that  way.  Little  babies  often 
drop  toys,  spoons,  and  other  playthings.  These  should 
always  be  carefully  wiped  off  before  they  are  given 
back,  since  harmful  disease  germs  may  be  in  the  dust 
they  take  up  from  the  floor. 

If  little  children  begin  the  habit  of  mouth  breath- 
ing, their  mouths  should  be  closed  while  they  sleep. 
If  carefully  watched,  the  habit  may  be  stopped  in 
this  way.  Too  much  pains  cannot  be  taken  to  prevent 
them  from  starting  this  habit,  as  their  health  is  sure 
to  be  seriously  injured  by  it. 

By  and  by  the  babies  of  to-day's  home  circle  will 
be  starting  school.  What  pride  the  family  will  take 
in  having  them  active  and  strong  both  at  play  and  at 
work.  How  sorry  any  member  would  be  to  have  one 


226          THE  BUILDING   AND   CARE   OF  THE  BODY 

inferior  in  mind  or  in  body  because  of  his  carelessness 
or  poor  judgment.  Looking  out  for  the  health  and 
happiness  of  others  is  among  the  greatest  privileges  of 
life.  It  is,  indeed,  good  fortune  to  begin  such  service 
in  childhood  by  faithful  care  of  the  sweet,  helpless 
little  ones  at  home. 

POINTS   FOR  SPECIAL  STUDY 

1.  Babies  should  not  be  allowed  to  handle  food  that 
requires   chewing.      Candy,   rich    desserts,   and  fried  foods 
should  not  be  given  to  small  children,  nor  should  such  foods 
be  eaten  when  one  is  older,  except  in  small  quantities. 

2.  Infants  should  at  all  times  be  kept  warm.     Bright 
light  may  injure  their  eyes,  and  so  they  should  be  protected 
from  it.     The  best  time  to  take  little  children  out  of  doors 
in  winter  and  spring  is  from  10  or  11  A.M.  to  3  P.M. 

3.  When  being  lifted  or  carried,  an  infant's  back  should 
always  be  supported.     Children  should  never  be  lifted  by  the 
hands  or  wrists. 

4.  Babies   should  not  be   allowed   to   handle   anything 
which  may  choke  them,  or  with  which  they  may  injure 
themselves. 

5.  Infants  may  be  killed  or  injured  in  mind  or  body  for 
life,  if  allowed  to  fall. 

6.  Standing   or   walking  before   the   legs   and   feet   are 
strong  enough  may  cause  crooked  legs  or  weaken  the  body 
by  breaking  down  the  natural  arch  of  the  foot. 

7.  Babies  under  six  months  old  should  not  be  played 
with  at  all,  and  the  less  all  children  are  played  with  until 
they  are  old  enough  to  run  about,  the  better. 

8.  Little  children  take  contagious  diseases  very  readily. 
For  this  reason  they  should  in  winter  be  kept  from  street 


THE  CARE  OF  LITTLE   CHILDREN  227 

cars,  crowded  stores,  and  other  places  where  the  air  is  likely 
to  be  impure. 

QUESTIONS 

% 

1.  Until  what  age  should  a  child  be  fed  only  liquid  food? 

2.  Tell  the  best  food  for  children  from  one  to  two  years 
old. 

3.  What  meats  may  be  given  the  third  year?    What 
vegetables?    What  desserts? 

4.  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  best  food  for  children  from 
one  to  two  years  old. 

5.  Tell  what  is  said  about  food  for  children  after  the  age 
of  three. 

6.  What  care  should  be  taken  concerning  the  drinking 
water  given  to  children? 

7.  Mention  two  things  to  be  especially  careful  about 
when  one  has  a  baby  out  of  doors. 

8.  What  is  the  best  time  of  day  to  take  a  baby  out  of 
doors  in  winter? 

9.  What  care  should   be  taken  in  lifting  very  young 
babies?  in  lifting  any  little  child? 

10.  Why  should   buttons,   etc.,  not  be  kept  within  the 
reach  of  infants? 

11.  How  may  babies  injure  themselves  with  sharp  or 
pointed  instruments?    How  are  " pacifiers"  injurious? 

12.  Tell  why  a  fall  may  be  especially  harmful  to  a  little 
baby. 

13.  Tell  two  bad  results  of  standing  or  walking  before 
the  legs  are  strong  enough. 

14.  Until  what  age  should  children  not  be  played  with  at 
all?     Why  is  hard  play  just  before  bedtime  unwise? 

15.  Tell  how  to  help    keep  children  from  forming  the 
mouth-breathing  habit;  from  taking  contagious  diseases. 


GLOSSARY 

Abdomen  (ab  do'men),  that  part  of  the  body  between  the  chest  and 

legs. 
Adenoids  (ad'e  noidz),  spongy  growths  in  the  upper  part  of  the  throat, 

back  of  the  nose. 
Albumen  (albii'men),  one  kind  of  proteid;  the  chief  component  of 

white  of  egg. 

Alcohol  (al'ko  hoi) ,  the  intoxicating  element  of  wine,  beer,  whisky,  etc. 
Alcoholic  (al'ko  hol'ik),  containing  alcohol. 
Alimentary  canal  (al  i  men'ta  ry),  the  food  channel  of  the  body. 
Aorta  (a  or'ta),  the  great  artery  through  which  blood  passes  to  every 

part  of  the  body  except  the  lungs. 
Artery  (iir'tery),  one  of  the  tubes  through  which  blood  passes  from 

the  heart. 

Astigmatism  (a  stig'ma  tiz'm),  a  defect  of  the  eye  caused  by  a  condi- 
tion of  unequal  curvature  of  the  lens  or  cornea. 
Auditory  canal  (a'dito  ry),  the  tube  from  the  opening  of  the  ear  to 

the  drumhead  of  the  middle  ear. 
Auricle  (a'ri  k'l),  the  external  ear. 

Aurist  (a'rist),  one  skilled  in  treating  disorders  of  the  ear. 
Bacteria  (bak  te'ri  a),  tiny  plants  often  called  germs  or  microbes. 
Bowels  (bou'elz),  the  large  and  small  intestines  together. 
Bronchi  (bron'ki),  the  two  branches  of  the  windpipe  entering  the  lungs. 
Bronchial  tubes  (bron'ki  al  tubz),  the  divisions  of  the  bronchi. 
Bronchioles  (bron'ki  olz),  small  divisions  or  branches  of  the  bronchial 

tubes. 
Capillary  (kap'illary),  one  of  the  small  blood  vessels  connecting 

arteries  and  veins. 
Carbon  dioxide  (kar  bon  dl  oks'id),the  poisonous  gas  breathed  out  from 

the  lungs. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  (kar  bon'ik),  another  name  for  carbon  dioxide. 
Cerebellum  (ser  e  bel'lum),  the  part  of  the  brain  that  controls  combined 

muscular  action ;  the  hinder  and  lower  part. 

229 


230  GLOSSARY 

Cerebrum  (ser'e  brum),  the  fore  part  and  larger  division  of  the  brain. 

Chyle  (kil),  the  digested  food  in  the  intestine. 

Chyme  (kim),  the  partly  digested  food  leaving  the  stomach. 

Cilia  (sil'I  a),  tiny  hairs  in  the  air  passages. 

Circulation  (ser  kula'shun),  the  movement  of  the  blood  through  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  body. 

Combustion  (kom  bus'chun),  the  union  of  carbon  and  oxygen  result- 
ing in  heat. 

Component  (kom  po'nent),  one  of  the  parts  that  make  up  a  thing. 

Constipation  (kon  sti  pa'shun),  a  state  of  the  bowels  in  which  the  ex- 
pulsion of  waste  is  not  regular  or  sufficiently  frequent. 

Consumption  (kon  sump'shun),  a  wasting  away  of  the  body,  or  tuber- 
culosis of  the  lungs. 

Corpuscles  (kor'pus  s'lz),  the  tiny  cells  of  the  blood  commonly  de- 
scribed by  their  color,  red  or  white. 

Dandruff  (dan'druf),  the  small  scales  which  come  off  from  the  scalp. 

Dentine  (den'tm),  the  ivory-like  substance  lying  under  the  enamel  of 
the  tooth. 

Dermis  (der'mis),  the  true  skin. 

Diaphragm  (di'afram),  the  muscle  which  separates  the  cavity  of  the 
chest  from  that  of  the  abdomen. 

Drumhead  (drum  hed),  the  membrane  separating  the  outer  from  the 
middle  ear. 

Ear  drum  (er  drum),  the  middle  ear. 

Enamel  (en  am'el),  the  hard  outer  covering  of  a  tooth. 

Enema  (en'e  ma),  an  injection  of  fluid  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
bowels. 

Epidermis  (epi  der'mis),  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin. 

Epiglottis  (ep  I  glot'tis),  the  valve  which  keeps  food  and  drink  from 
passing  into  the  windpipe. 

Esophagus  (e  sofa  giis),  the  tube  extending  from  the  throat  to  the 
stomach. 

Eustachian  (u  sta'ki  an),  the  tube  leading  from  the  middle  ear  to  the 
throat. 

Gall  bladder  (gal),  the  sac  of  the  liver  that  secretes  the  gall  or  bile. 

Gastric  glands  (gas'trik),  the  glands  of  the  stomach  that  secrete  gas- 
tric juice. 

Gastric  juice,  the  digestive  fluid  secreted  by  the  glands  of  the  stomach. 


GLOSSARY  231 

Insensible  perspiration  (in  sen' sib1!  per  spira'shun),  constant  per- 
spiration not  noticed. 

Intercostal  muscles  (in  ter  kos'tal),  the  muscles  between  the  ribs,  used 
in  breathing. 

Intestinal  fluid  (in  tes'ti  rial),  the  digestive  fluid  of  the  intestines. 

Intestinal  glands,  the  glands  of  the  intestines  that  secrete  intestinal 
fluid. 

Involuntary  (in  vol'unta  ry),  not  under  the  control  of  the  will. 

Kidneys  (kid'niz),  the  two  organs  of  the  body  that  secrete  urine. 

Large  intestine,  the  lower  part  of  the  intestines.  It  is  larger  around 
than  the  small  intestine  but  not  nearly  so  long. 

Larynx  (lar'inks),  the  windpipe. 

Liver  (liv'er),  the  largest  gland  of  the  body.  It  secretes  bile  or  gall, 
which  aids  in  digestion.  It  is  in  the  right  side  of  the  abdomen. 

Massage  (ma  sazh'),  rubbing  or  kneading  the  body. 

Mastication  (mas'tika'shiin),  the  act  of  chewing  food. 

Medulla  (me  diil'la),  the  back  part  of  the  brain  connected  with  the 
spinal  cord. 

Microbe  (ml'krob),  disease  germ. 

Middle  ear,  the  middle  part  of  the  ear,  sometimes  called  the  ear  drum. 

Mucus  (mu'kus),  a  secretion  of  glands  in  the  lining  of  the  air  pas- 
sages. 

Nitrogen  (m'tro  Jen),  the  gas  which  forms  the  greater  part  of  air. 

Nostril  (nos'tril),  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  nose. 

Oculist  (ok'u  list),  one  skilled  in  treating  diseases  of  the  eyes. 

Oil  glands,  glands  of  the  skin  which  secrete  oil. 

Optic  nerve  (op'tik),  the  nerve  which  passes  from  the  retina  of  the 
eye  to  the  brain. 

Orthodontia  (or  tho  don'sha),  the  science  of  straightening  teeth. 

Oxygen  (oks'i  Jen),  the  gas  of  air  that  is  necessary  to  life. 

Pacifier  (pas'i  fier),  a  rubber  nipple  given  babies  to  quiet  them. 

Pancreas  (pan'kre  as),  the  gland  secreting  pancreatic  juice. 

Pancreatic  juice,  the  digestive  fluid  secreted  by  the  pancreas. 

Pasteurized  milk  (pas'ter  iz'd),  milk  that  has  been  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature of  about  one  hundred  fifty-five  degrees. 

Pericardium  (per  ikar'dium),  the  membrane  sac  which  incloses  the 
heart. 

Perspiration  (per spira'shun),  sweat. 


232  GLOSSARY 

Perspiratory  glands  (per  spir'atory),  the  glands   of  the  skin  that 

secrete  perspiration. 
Pharynx  (far'inks),  the  part  of  the  food  canal  between  the  mouth  and 

the  esophagus. 

Plasma  (plaz'ma),  the  colorless  fluid  of  the  blood. 
Proteid  (pro'te  id),  the  component  of  food  from  which  bodily  tissues 

are  built. 
Pulmonary  artery  (pul'monary),  the  artery  leading  from  the  heart 

to  the  lungs. 

Pulmonary  vein,  the  vein  which  leads  from  the  lungs  to  the  heart. 
Pulp,  the  soft  tissue  in  the  central  cavity  of  the  teeth. 
Pulse,  the  beating  or  throbbing  of  the  heart  or  blood  vessels. 
Pupil,  the  opening  in  the  iris  or  colored  part  of  the  eye. 
Pylorus  (pi  lo'rus),  the  opening  in  the  stomach  into  the  small  intestine. 
Respiration  (res  pi  ra'shiin),  the  act  of  breathing. 
Retina  (ret'i  na),  the  innermost  coat  of  the  eye,  corresponding  to  the 

film  of  a  camera. 

Rhythmic  (rith'mik),  having  regular  succession  of  motion. 
Saliva  (sa  li'va),  secretion  of  the  salivary  glands. 
Salivary  glands  (sal'i  va  ry),  the  glands  in  the  mouth  secreting  saliva. 
Secretion  (se  kre'shiin),  fluid  secreted  by  a  gland  from  the  blood. 
Small  intestine,  the  part  of  the  bowels  between  the  stomach  and  the 

large  intestine. 
Spinal  cord  (spl'nal),  the  cord  extending  from  the  brain  to  the  base 

of  the  spine. 
Starch  (starch),  a  component  of  food  which  furnishes  fuel  for  the 

body. 

Sterilized  milk  (ster'illz'd),  milk  that  has  been  boiled  to  kill  bacteria. 
Sternum  (ster'num),  the  breast  bone. 
Stomach  (stum'ak),  the  part  of  the  food  canal  between  the  esophagus 

and  the  small  intestine. 

Sugar,  a  component  of  food  which  furnishes  fuel  to  the  body. 
Thorax  (tho'raks),  the  chest. 
Trachea  (tra'ke  a),  windpipe. 
Urethra  (ure'thra),  the  canal  by  which  urine  passes  from  the  bladder 

and  is  discharged. 

Urine  (u'rin),  the  fluid  excreted  by  the  kidneys. 
Veins  (vanz),  the  vessels  through  which  blood  passes  to  the  heart. 
Villi  (vll'li),  hair  like  tubes  in  the  lining  of  the  small  intestine. 


INDEX 


Abdomen,  4. 

Absorption,  25. 

Accidents,  185-191. 

Acid  foods,  20. 

Acrolein,  135. 

Adam's  apple,  173. 

Adenoids,  101-103. 

Air,  value  of,  71 ;  pure,  72 ;  impure, 
74,  83 ;  too  dry,  82. 

Alcohol,  60-64;  not  a  food,  60; 
effect  on  appetite,  62;  on  brain 
and  nervous  system,  132;  on  con- 
sumptives, 201;  on  digestion,  32; 
on  health,  60;  on  the  heart  and 
circulation,  62,  122;  on  usefulness, 
62;  on  warmth,  60. 

Alimentary  canal,  15. 

Arteries,  117. 

Asparagus,  54. 

Astigmatism,  155. 

Auditory  canal,  161,  163. 

B 

Babies,  care  of,  219-227. 

Bacteria,  36,  192-197. 

Baldness,  181. 

Bathing,  107. 

Beans,  52. 

Between  meals,  31. 

Bile,  16. 

Bladder,  110. 

Blood,  7,  97,  116-123. 

Bowels,  15. 

Brain,  125-127,  131,  132. 

Bread,  49. 

Breakfast,  67. 

Breathing,  87-97 ;   mouth,  100-103. 

Bronchi,  90. 

Bronchial  tubes,  90. 

Bronchioles,  90. 

Bruises,  185. 


Burbank,  Luther,  133-134. 
Burns,  186. 
Butter,  40. 
Buttermilk,  40. 


Cabbage,  54. 

Candy,  66-67. 

Capillaries,  117. 

Carbon  dioxide,  73. 

Care  of  little  children,  219-227. 

Carrots,  54. 

Celery,  54. 

Cerebellum,  126,  127. 

Cerebrum,  126,  127. 

Cheese,  40. 

Chest,  4. 

Chewing  food,  19-22. 

Chicken  pox,  198. 

Children's  diseases,  197-199. 

Chocolate,  58. 

Cigarettes,  132-136. 

Cilia,  88. 

Circulation  of  the  blood,  116-124. 

Clothing,  178-179. 

Cocoa,  58. 

Coffee,  58,  59. 

Cold  drinks  and  foods,  20. 

Condensed  milk,  39. 

Constipation,  68. 

Consumption,  200-203. 

Contagious  diseases,  192-203. 

Cooking  and  serving  food,  29. 

Corn,  48. 

Corpuscles,  red,  116;   white,  117. 

Cream,  35. 

Cross-eye,  156. 

D 

Dandelions,  53. 
Deafness,  167-168. 
Deep  breathing,  93,  104,  207,  208 


233 


234 


INDEX 


Dental  floss,  141. 

Digestion,  in  the  mouth,  19;  in  the 
stomach,  24;  in  the  intestines,  24; 
of  flour  foods,  49;  waste  products 
of,  25;  effects  of  excitement  on, 
28;  of  hard  work  or  play  just  be- 
fore mealtime  on,  27;  of  alcohol 
on,  32 ;  of  exercise  on,  209 ;  of 
tobacco  on,  32. 

Digestive  organs,  15;    resting  of,  30. 

Disease  germs,  192-197. 

Drowning,  187. 

E 

Earache,  166. 
Ear-drum,  162. 
Ears,  161-171. 
Eggs,  42-43. 
Edison,  Thomas  A.,  135. 
Enema,  113. 
Epiglottis,  89. 
Esophagus,  15. 
Eustachian  tube,  162,  165. 
Exercise,  206-218. 
Eyes,  148-159. 

F 

Fainting,  187. 
Farsightedness,  155. 
Fast  eating,  21. 
Fat,  10. 
Fish,  44. 
Flour,  49. 
Food,  9-70. 
Food  components,  9. 
Fruits,  55. 

G 

Gall,  16. 

Gall  bladder,  15. 
Games,  209. 
Gastric  glands,  15. 
Gastric  juice,  15. 
Germs,  192-197. 
Glands,  14-17. 
Glasses,  157. 
Glottis,  89. 
Growth,  5. 

H 

Hair,  106,  180-182. 
Heart,  4,  117,  118,  120,  121,  122. 
House  fly,  196-197. 


Intercostal  muscles,  91. 
Intestinal  fluid,  17. 
Intestinal  glands,  17. 
Intestines,  15. 

K 
Kidneys,  109,  110. 


Large  intestine,  15.  16. 

Larynx,  89,  173. 

Lime,  11. 

Liver,  4,  15,  16,  17. 

Luncheon,  67. 

Lungs,  4,  90,  91,  92,  97,  200. 

M 

Magnesia,  11. 
Massaging,  209. 
Mastication,  19-23. 
Meals,  30. 
Measles,  198. 
Meats,  43,  44. 
Medulla,  126,  127. 
Milk,  34-41. 
Mineral  salts,  11. 
Mosquitoes,  197. 
Mucous  membrane,  88. 
Mumps,  199. 
Mushrooms,  189. 

N 

Nails,  182-183. 
Nearsightedness,  155. 
Nerves,  125,  129. 
Nervous  system,  125-137. 
Nose,  88. 

Nostrils,  testing,  101. 
Nuts,  54. 


O 


Oatmeal,  48. 
Olive  oil,  10,  68. 
Onions,  54. 
Orthodontia,  145. 
Oxygen,  73. 


Pacifier,  145. 
Pancreas,  15,  17. 


INDEX 


235 


Pancreatic  juice,  17. 

Pasteurized  milk,  36. 

Peas,  52. 

Perspiratory  glands,  106,  107. 

Pharynx,  15,  88. 

Phosphorus,  11. 

Plasma,  116. 

Poison  ivy,  189. 

Poisons,  189. 

Posture,  94-97,  104. 

Potatoes,  53. 

Proteid,  10. 

Protozoa,  192. 

Pulse,  121. 

R 

Rectum,  113. 
Retina,  150. 
Rhubarb,  53. 
Ribs,  91. 
Rice,  48. 
Rubbers,  179. 

S 

Salads,  68. 
Saliva,  16,  19. 
Salivary  glands,  15,  16. 
Salt,  11. 
Scalds,  186. 
Scarlet  fever,  198. 
Shoes,  179. 
Skeleton,  5,  6. 
Skimmed  milk,  39. 
Skin,  106. 
Skull,  6,  127. 
Sleep,  130,  131. 
Sleeplessness,  113,  131. 
Small  intestine,  15. 
Smallpox,  199. 
Soaking  foods,  31. 
Soda,  11. 
Soft  spot,  223. 
Soups,  30,  44. 
Spinach,  53. 

Spinal  column,  128,  129. 
Spinal  cord,  128,  129. 


Sputum,  193. 

Starch,  10. 

Sterilized  milk,  36. 

Stings,  189. 

Stomach,  4,  15,  16,  24. 

Sugar,  11. 

Sweat,  107. 

Swimming,  187,  188,  209. 


Tea,  58,  59. 

Teeth,  138-147. 

Temperature,  80-81.     • 

Thorax,  4,  91. 

Toadstools,  189. 

Tobacco,  effect  on  digestion,  32;    on 

heart    and    circulation,     122;     on 

nervous  system,  132-135. 
Tonsils,  89. 
Trachea,  89. 
Trunk,  4. 
Tuberculosis,  200. 
Typhoid  fever,  194. 

U 

Underclothing,  178. 
Ureter,  110. 
Urine,  110. 

V 

Vaccination,  199. 
Veins,  117. 
Ventilation,  77-85. 
Vermiform  appendix,  15. 
Vocal  cords,  173,  174. 
Voice,  172-177. 

W 

Walking,  210,  224. 

Waste  products  of  digestion,  25. 

Water,    use   to   the   body,    105-115; 

pure,  112;    remedies,  112. 
Water  drinking  at  meals,  21. 
Wheat,  48. 

Whooping  cough,  199. 
Windpipe,  89. 


The  Wonderful  House  that  Jack  Has 

A   READER    IN    PRACTICAL 
PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 

FOR    USE  IN  SCHOOL   AND  HOME 

By  COLUMBUS   N.   MILLARD 

Supervisor  of  Grammar  Grades,  Buffalo  Public  Schools 

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HOW   WE   TRAVEL 

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